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he Spotted Owl, Strix occidentalis, is a species of true owl. It is a resident species of forests in western North America, where it nests in tree holes, old bird of prey nests, or rock crevices. Nests can be between 13 and 66 yards (12 to 60 meters) high and usually contain two eggs (though some will contain as many as four). It is a strictly nocturnal owl, which feeds on small mammals and birds, which has only been discovered recently.

This owl has a length of 43 cm (17 inches), a wingspan of 114 cm (45 inches), and a weight of around 600 g (21 ounces). Its eggs are a little over 2 inches (50 millimeters) long, and are white and smooth with a slightly grainy texture. The female sits on the eggs and cares for the young, while the male provides food for them. Juvenile Spotted Owls have an average survival rate of 11%, with an average birth rate of .58 owls per pair.

Spotted owls occur in closed-canopy, uneven-aged, late-successional and old-growth forests [5][45]; Mexican spotted owls also occur in deep, steep-walled canyons with little canopy cover [23]. Many habitat measurements were taken in plots between 0.1 and 2 acres (0.04-0.8 ha). In this section, these will be referred to as "small plots."

Elevation

Spotted owls occur at a range of elevations, with higher elevations occupied at lower latitudes. Northern spotted owls occur at elevations from 70 to 6,600 feet (20–2,010 m), with the majority in the lower portions of this range [5][30][46]. In coniferous forests of northwestern California, nest sites ranged from 118 to 4,944 feet (35-1,507 m), with 94% occurring below 4,000 feet (1,218 m) [18]. In mixed evergreen and mixed-conifer forests of northwestern California, roosting northern spotted owls avoided areas above 2,950 feet (900 m) [47]. In coniferous forests of the Klamath, Coast and Cascade regions in Oregon and the Olympic peninsula of Washington, nest locations were significantly lower (P<0.001) in elevation than random sites within northern spotted owl's home ranges [12]. In coniferous forests of southwestern Washington, important owl locations (e.g., nest sites, multiple detection sites) averaged 3,170 feet (966.2 m), which was significantly (P<0.001) lower than the 3,510-foot (1,070.3 m) average elevation at random sites [48]. In coniferous forests of the eastern Cascade Range of Washington, elevation of northern spotted owl nest sites was negatively associated with latitude (P<0.001) [46], and site occupancy and reproductive rates were inversely associated with elevation [7].

In some regions, northern spotted owls use areas near water. In mixed-evergreen forests of northwestern California, the summer roost sites of 10 northern spotted owls averaged 466 feet (142.1 m) from water, which was significantly (P<0.01) shorter than the average 743 feet (226.6 m) from random locations to water [51]. In managed timberlands in the coastal redwood vegetation zone of northwestern California, northern spotted owl nest areas were closer to water than randomly-selected plots (P=0.032) [54]. Nest sites in low- to mid-elevation conifer forests of northwestern California averaged 385 feet (117.3 m) from water [18]. On 2 sites in the Coast and Cascade Ranges in western Oregon, 84% of nests were within 820 feet (250 m) of a stream or spring [30]. In southwestern Oregon, roost sites were significantly (P<0.01) closer to water in summer (x = 240 feet (74 m)) than in winter (x = 325 feet (99 m)) [10]. A literature review states that Mexican spotted owls occur in canyons with perennial water sources [4].

Spotted owl home ranges are generally large, but sizes are variable. The average home range size of northern spotted owl pairs varies from 1,030 acres (417 ha) in coniferous forests of Oregon [13] to 14,169 acres (5,734 ha) on Washington's Olympic Peninsula [70]. In riparian hardwood forests of the Sierra National Forest, California spotted owl had comparatively small home ranges, varying from 661 to 985 acres (267-399 ha), while those in mixed pine, white fir, and California red fir forests of the Lassen National Forest had home ranges varying from 7,061 to 12,473 acres (2,857-5,048 ha) [60]. Median California spotted owl pair home range sized up to 18,706 acres (7,570 ha) [4]. A Mexican spotted owl review includes individual home range estimates from 645 acres (261 ha) in the upper Gila Mountains to 3,672 acres (1,487 ha) on the Colorado Plateau [27]. Pair home range estimates ranged from 2,548 acres (1,031 ha) in Arizona to 2,780 (1,125 ha) in New Mexico [4]. In some cases, Mexican spotted owls can spend a substantial portion of their time in a small portion of their home range [24][28]. For example, in riparian areas, pinyon-juniper, and mixed-conifer woodlands of southern Utah, 70% of radio locations occurred within an area averaging 689 acres (279 ha), which is less than one-third of the 2,179 acre (882 ha) area that was occupied by 95% of radio locations [28].

Spotted owls do not build their own nests. They rely on sites such as trees and snags with cavities or broken tops, and platforms associated with abandoned raptor or squirrel nests, witches' brooms (caused by mistletoe infection) and debris accumulations [12][18][20][21][27][30]. Large, old trees are most often used by spotted owls for nesting. Species used as nest trees vary with region and subspecies.

Several studies indicate that tree cavities are most commonly used for nesting by spotted owls, while the extent of platform use varies. In coniferous forests in Oregon, 60% to 93% of nests were in trees with broken tops. Additionally, broken-topped trees (>21 inches (53.3 cm) DBH with 1 or more secondary crowns) had significantly (P<0.001) higher basal area and density in small plots on and around nest sites than in random plots within spotted owls' home ranges [12]. Platform use may be more common in areas that lack large, old trees and snags and have a greater abundance of witches' brooms. Compared to other habitats within their range, northern spotted owls use platforms more often in mixed-evergreen and mixed-conifer forests [12][30]. California spotted owls in southern California use platforms more frequently than those in the Sierra Nevada [4][45]. Platform use also occurred more frequently in oaks than in conifers in the southern Sierra Nevada [20]. The average DBH of California spotted owl platform nest trees was significantly (P<0.01) smaller than that of cavity nest trees in foothill riparian and oak woodlands in the southern Sierra Nevada [21]. In grand fir-dominated stands in eastern Washington, northern spotted owls nested in witches' brooms on trees as small as 12 inches (30 cm) DBH [62]. Mexican spotted owls use cliffs and comparatively open areas as nest sites more frequently than the other subspecies [4][27]. Fletcher and Hollis (1994, as cited by [27]) found 9.7% of 248 Mexican spotted owl nests in cliffs, while Steger and others [21] noted only 1 out of 41 California spotted owl nests in a rock cliff in the southern Sierra Nevada.

Spotted owls typically nest in old trees in mature and old-growth forests. Sixty-five percent of northern spotted owl nests sites in coniferous forests of Oregon were in trees greater than 120 years old [13]. On 2 sites in the Coast and Cascade Ranges in western Oregon, 90% of nest sites were in unmanaged old-growth forests, 4% were in mature forests, and 6% were in late-successional forests (70–80 years) with 5 or fewer residual old-growth trees per hectare [30]. In low- to mid-elevation coniferous forests of northwestern California, the minimum nest tree age averaged 288 years, with a range of 57 to 688 years [18]. In coniferous forests in the Cascade Range of southwestern Washington, northern spotted owl site centers, such as the nest tree or locations of fledged young, did not occur in stands less than 49 years old, and 31% were in stands greater than 180 years old [48]. Most species of nest trees used by nesting California spotted owls in oak woodland and coniferous forests of the southern Sierra Nevada averaged more than 227 years of age [20].

The goldfish (Carassius auratus auratus) is a freshwater fish in the family Cyprinidae of order Cypriniformes. It was one of the earliest fish to be domesticated, and is one of the most commonly kept aquarium fish.

In the wild, the diet of goldfish consists of crustaceans, insects, and various plant matter. Like most fish, they are opportunistic feeders and do not stop eating on their own accord.

Goldfish have strong associative learning abilities, as well as social learning skills. In addition, their visual acuity allows them to distinguish between individual humans. Owners may notice that fish react favorably to them (swimming to the front of the glass, swimming rapidly around the tank, and going to the surface mouthing for food) while hiding when other people approach the tank. Over time, goldfish learn to associate their owners and other humans with food, often "begging" for food whenever their owners approach.[citation needed]

Responses from a blind goldfish proved that it recognized one particular family member and a friend by voice, or vibration of sound.[citation needed] This behavior was remarkable because it showed that the fish recognized the vocal vibration or sound of two people specifically out of seven in the house.

Goldfish are gregarious, displaying schooling behavior, as well as displaying the same types of feeding behaviors. Goldfish may display similar behaviors when responding to their reflections in a mirror.[citation needed]

Goldfish that have constant visual contact with humans also stop considering them to be a threat. After being kept in a tank for several weeks, sometimes months, it becomes possible to feed a goldfish by hand without it shying away.

Goldfish have learned behaviors, both as groups and as individuals, that stem from native carp behavior. They are a generalist species with varied feeding, breeding, and predator avoidance behaviors that contribute to their success. As fish they can be described as "friendly" towards each other. Very rarely does a goldfish harm another goldfish, nor do the males harm the females during breeding. The only real threat that goldfish present to each other is competing for food. Commons, comets, and other faster varieties can easily eat all the food during a feeding before fancy varieties can reach it. This can lead to stunted growth or possible starvation of fancier varieties when they are kept in a pond with their single-tailed brethren. As a result, care should be taken to combine only breeds with similar body type and swim characteristics.

Goldfish have a memory-span of at least three months and can distinguish between different shapes, colors and sounds.[15][16] By using positive reinforcement, goldfish can be trained to recognize and to react to light signals of different colors[17] or to perform tricks, such as the limbo, slalom, fetch, and soccer.[18] Fish respond to certain colors most evidently in relation to feeding.[citation needed] Fish learn to anticipate feedings provided they occur at around the same time everyday.

Goldfish Vision:

Vision that is seen in the goldfish may not seem important to many people, but it is actually quite fascinating in that it is much more developed than most people would expect it to be for the size and apparent intelligence of the creature. Overall, goldfish have developed full-spectrum vision so that they will be able to see the micro-flashes of static electrical charge and bio-luminescence that appear when a creature hunting with sonar sends sound waves through waters rich in micro-fauna in order to search for its prey. This full-spectrum vision has also proved to be very effective in sensing many and various tell-tale signs that come from the bow-wave that a rapidly moving predator makes as it cuts through the water.

The gray wolf or grey wolf (Canis lupus), often known simply as the wolf, is the largest wild member of the Canidae family.

In the wild, wolf packs are little more than nuclear families whose basic social unit consists of a mated pair, followed by its offspring.[63] Northern wolf packs tend not to be as compact or unified as those of African wild dogs and spotted hyenas,[64] though they are not as unstable as those of coyotes.[65] Southern wolves are more similar in social behaviour to coyotes and dingoes, living largely alone or in pairs.[66] The average pack consists of 5–11 animals; 1–2 adults, 3–6 juveniles and 1–3 yearlings,[67] though exceptionally large packs consisting of 42 wolves are known. Wolf packs rarely adopt other wolves into their fold, and typically kill them. In the rare cases where strange wolves are adopted, the adoptee is almost invariably a young animal of 1–3 years of age, while killed wolves are mostly fully grown.[68] The adoption of a new member can be a lengthy process, and can consist of weeks of exploratory, non-fatal attacks in order to establish whether or not the newcomer is trustworthy.[69]

Wolves use different places for their diurnal rest; places with cover are preferred during cold, damp and windy weather, while wolves in dry, calm and warm weather readily rest in the open. During the autumn-spring period, when wolves are more active, they willingly lie out in the open, whatever their location. Actual dens are usually constructed for pups during the summer period. When building dens, females make use of natural shelters such as fissures in rocks, cliffs overhanging riverbanks and holes thickly covered by vegetation.

Wolves primarily feed on medium to large sized ungulates (sometimes 10–15 times larger than themselves[26]), though they are not fussy eaters. Medium and small sized animals preyed on by wolves include marmots, hares, badgers, foxes, polecats, ground squirrels, mice, hamsters, voles and other rodents, as well as insectivores. They frequently eat waterfowl (particularly during their moulting period and winter, when their greasy and fatty meat helps wolves build up their fat reserves) and their eggs.[94][95] When such foods are insufficient, they will prey on lizards, snakes, frogs, rarely toads and large insects.

Brown bears are encountered by wolves in both Eurasia and North America. Generally, the outcome of such encounters depends on context: brown bears typically prevail against wolves in disputes over carcasses, while wolves mostly prevail against bears when defending their den sites. Both species will kill each other's young. Wolves will eat the brown bears they kill, while brown bears seem to only eat young wolves.[130]

They are also capable of running at speeds of 56–64 km (34–38 miles) per hour, and can continue running for more than 20 minutes, though not necessarily at that speed.[32] In cold climates, wolves can reduce the flow of blood near their skin to conserve body heat.

Their sense of smell is relatively weakly developed when compared to that of some hunting dog breeds, being able to detect carrion upwind no farther than 2–3 km. Because of this, they rarely capture hidden hares or birds, though they can easily follow fresh tracks.[59] Captive wolves are known to be able to detect what foods their handlers have eaten by smell.[60] Their auditory perception is very sharp, being able to hear up to a frequency of 26kHz,[61] and is greater than that of foxes. Their hearing is sharp enough to register the fall of leaves in the autumn period.[59] The legend that wolves fear the sound of string instruments may have a basis in fact, as captive wolves in the Regent's Park Zoo were shown to exhibit signs of intense distress when hearing low minor chords.[62] Their eyesight is not as powerful as that of dogs, though their night vision is the most advanced of the Canidae.[59]