Literature / Summa Theologiae

Page from an incunable edition of part II, printed by Peter Schöffer in 1471

"Because the doctor of Catholic truth ought not only to teach the proficient, but also to instruct beginners (according to the Apostle: As unto little ones in Christ, I gave you milk to drink, not meat—1 Corinthians 3:1-2), we purpose in this book to treat of whatever belongs to the Christian religion, in such a way as may tend to the instruction of beginners. We have considered that students in this doctrine have not seldom been hampered by what they have found written by other authors, partly on account of the multiplication of useless questions, articles, and arguments, partly also because those things that are needful for them to know are not taught according to the order of the subject matter, but according as the plan of the book might require, or the occasion of the argument offer, partly, too, because frequent repetition brought weariness and confusion to the minds of readers.

Endeavouring to avoid these and other like faults, we shall try, by God's help, to set forth whatever is included in this sacred doctrine as briefly and clearly as the matter itself may allow."

— St. Thomas Aquinas, Prologue

The Summa Theologiae is a compendium of Catholic teachings. St. Thomas Aquinas wrote it between 1265 and 1273, and meant it to give logical defences of the teachings and help with the education of clergymen and laymen. It goes through nearly all the points of Western Christian theology; it starts with God, then Creation, Man, Man's return to God, Christ, Man's Way to return, and back to God. He draws from multiple sources in explaining each of the points, like Scripture, St. Augustine of Hippo and other Church Fathers, St. Anselm of Canterbury, Plato, Aristotle, Cicero, Averroes, Avicenna, Maimonides, and more.

The Summa Theologiae follows a certain format: first, it is divided into four overall parts (Parts I, II-I, II-II, and III). Each of these parts is divided into Treatises, which focus on a particular topic (e.g. On the Creation, On Man, On Truth). The treatises are then divided into "Questions", which are general issues within the topic of the treatise (e.g. "Of the Simplicity of God", "Of the Angels in Comparison with Bodies", "Of the Effects of Love"). Those questions are then divided into numbered "Articles", which are questions about an aspect of the "Question" (e.g. "Whether God exists?", "Whether Sorrow is the Same as Pain?", "The Comparison of the True to the Good").

Each "Article" is divided into five parts:

• First, the Article formulates in its title a question that can only be answered by yes or no; this is done so that the issue can be finite and decidable.
• Next, St. Thomas lists a number of objections (usually three) to the answer that he will give. They are apparent proofs, beginning with "It seems that..." (Oportet). In these objections, St. Thomas makes a case for them by providing reasons why these arguments could be taken to be true.
• Third, St. Thomas indicates his own position by stating "On the contrary..." (Sed contra). The brief argument is usually an argument from authority, whether it is from Scripture, the Church Fathers, or any other philosopher.
• The fourth part is "I answer that" (Respondeo dicens), in which St. Thomas proves his own position, providing background explanations or distinctions along the way.
• Lastly, St. Thomas addresses each objection by explaining where and how it went wrong, that is, by distinguishing the truth from the falsity in the objection. Sometimes, the Respondeo sufficiently answers the objections in that St. Thomas does not have to point out where each objection went wrong, so he would answer with "This is a sufficient answer to the Objections".

After having a mystical experience while celebrating Mass in 1273, St. Thomas refused to complete the Summa Theologiae, saying "I can do no more. Such secrets have been revealed to me that all I have written now appears to be of little value". Nonetheless, the work was completed by others who drew from his earlier material; this material makes up the "Supplement".

The Summa has been highly successful in the Catholic Church and remains one of the most cited works of theology even to this day. Pope Leo XIII wrote in his encyclical, Aeterni Patris, about St. Thomas's influence in the Church and aimed to advance the revival of scholastic philosophy, especially that of St. Thomas. He even adds that the Summa, alongside Scripture and a book of decrees by the Supreme Pontiffs, was placed on the altar at the Council of Trent, underscoring how much respect the bishops at Trent had for the Summa for summarizing the Church's teachings. However, despite its profound influence, St. Thomas would vehemently insist that it is not to be taken as equivalent in authority to Scripture or the Church, and a few bits have since been formally rejected^note One example of this would be St. Thomas' comments on the Immaculate Conception, in which the Blessed Virgin Mary was conceived without original sin, and during his time it was up for debate. In III q. 27, art. 2, St. Thomas, although he affirms that the Blessed Virgin Mary was born without original sin, denies that she was conceived without it, saying that "this would be derogatory to the dignity of Christ, by reason of His being the universal Saviour of all. Consequently after Christ, who, as the universal Saviour of all, needed not to be saved, the purity of the Blessed Virgin holds the highest place." Blessed John Duns Scotus, another scholastic philosopher who wrote after St. Thomas' time, turned the argument upside-down and argued that it is actually because of Jesus' excellence as redeemer, reconciliator, and mediator that Mary did not contract original sin and that to say otherwise would be derogatory to the dignity of Christ. Blessed Scotus' comments would eventually lead Pope Blessed Pius IX to write the apostolic constitution Ineffabilis Deus in 1849, in which the Immaculate Conception is declared a dogma, or a divinely revealed truth transmitted from the Apostles in the Scriptures or by tradition, and proposed by the Church for the acceptance of the faithful..

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The Summa Theologiae provides examples of:

• All Animals Are Domesticated: If not for original sin, humans could govern all other animals as if they were domesticated.
• Appeal to Authority: Typically, St. Thomas makes this kind of argument in the Sed contra to indicate his own position. The argument from authority is also discussed in Part I, Q. 1, Art. 8. One of the objections to sacred doctrine being argumentative is that the argument is either from authority or reason. If it is from authority, then it would be unbefitting the dignity of sacred doctrine because the argument from authority is the weakest form of proof... according to Boethius. St. Thomas replies that the argument from authority is the weakest form of argument if based on human reason, but the strongest if based on divine revelation. This argument works if the opponent concedes belief in divine revelation, which is why the Bible is used when disputing with heretics.
• As the Good Book Says...: But of course. St. Thomas cites Scripture throughout this work. He even states that citing Scripture and interpreting it is the form of argument to be used when disputing with those who concede belief in divine revelation, like heretics, as both the heretic and the Christian have this for common ground.
• As You Know: Because of the compendium's nature, St. Thomas frequently and repeatedly explains basic bits of Christian philosophy. He does this because subsequent articles and questions build on ideas explored in previous articles.
• Big Good: God, of course. Everything good, and even existence itself, springs from Him.
• Book Ends: The work starts with God, Who is "in the beginning". Then, the Summa proceeds to the Creation and a consideration of creatures, centering on Man, who alone is created in God's image. It then goes to Man's return to God through his life of moral and religious choice. It then studies Christ, Man's Way to return by means of the Sacraments, and lastly ends with God.
• The Corrupter: Discussed in Part I, Q. 114 and Part II-1, Q. 80. St. Thomas says that the Devil and the demons definitely can have a role in causing a Christian to sin, but in the sense that they suggest to the Christian or propose an object of appetite (tendency or inclination). That said, the principle of a sinful action is the will, and every sin is voluntary. This means that the Devil neither has to tempt a Christian into sinning nor has to cause evil thoughts, as sometimes the Christian can do such things entirely by choice. Even if the Christian sins as the Devil suggested, it is still by choice on the part of the Christian because he chose to go along with the Devil's suggestion to sin.
• Due to the Dead: St. Thomas says that funeral rites help both the living and the dead since they comfort the living, remind them of God, and inspire prayers for the dead, which help them if they're in Purgatory. However, he dismisses the idea that the dead cannot rest without burial as "ridiculous and absurd".
• Evil Stole My Faith: Presented as one of the objections to the existence of God in Part I, Q. 2, Art. 3. It says that the existence of a contrary would completely negate the existence of the other. If God, being infinite goodness, existed, then there would be no evil discoverable, but since there is evil in the world, then God does not exist. St. Thomas replies that God would not allow any evil to exist in His works unless, in His omnipotence and goodness, He were to produce good out of it.
• God Is Good: Naturally, this is one of the main ideas of the work.

• The Heretic: Discussed in Part II-II, Q. 11. St. Thomas advocates a punitive treatment of heretics on the grounds that they corrupt Christian dogmas, which would lead a Christian astray and damn him. As this is a graver matter than, for instance, forging money, he argues that heretics not only should not be tolerated but also deserve to be excommunicated and even handed over to the secular tribunal, where they may be put to death.
  "With regard to heretics two points must be observed: one, on their own side; the other, on the side of the Church. On their own side there is the sin, whereby they deserve not only to be separated from the Church by excommunication, but also to be severed from the world by death. For it is a much graver matter to corrupt the faith which quickens the soul, than to forge money, which supports temporal life. Wherefore if forgers of money and other evil-doers are forthwith condemned to death by the secular authority, much more reason is there for heretics, as soon as they are convicted of heresy, to be not only excommunicated but even put to death.
  
  On the part of the Church, however, there is mercy which looks to the conversion of the wanderer, wherefore she condemns not at once, but 'after the first and second admonition,' as the Apostle directs: after that, if he is yet stubborn, the Church no longer hoping for his conversion, looks to the salvation of others, by excommunicating him and separating him from the Church, and furthermore delivers him to the secular tribunal to be exterminated thereby from the world by death. For Jerome commenting on Galatians 5:9, 'A little leaven,' says: 'Cut off the decayed flesh, expel the mangy sheep from the fold, lest the whole house, the whole paste, the whole body, the whole flock, burn, perish, rot, die. Arius was but one spark in Alexandria, but as that spark was not at once put out, the whole earth was laid waste by its flame.'"
• Humans Are Special: St. Thomas teaches that humans are the only animals whose souls live on past death, and the only animals meant for a relationship with God.
• Hypocritical Humor: Invoked when St. Thomas uses the authority of Boethius to show that the argument from authority is the weakest form of argument.
• Justified Criminal: St. Thomas explains that those who have a surplus of something are required, by natural law, to distribute that to the destitute, and that it is lawful for someone in dire need to take it openly or secretly, though he does not say it is "robbery" or "theft", properly speaking.
  "In cases of need all things are common property, so that there would seem to be no sin in taking another's property, for need has made it common."
• The Nicknamer: Usually, St. Thomas refers to other writers by nicknames. St. Paul is "the Apostle", Aristotle is "the Philosopher", Peter Lombard is "the Master", and so on.
• Omniscient Morality License: St. Thomas cites St. Augustine's response and replies that God would not allow any evil to exist in His works unless, in His omnipotence and goodness, He were to produce good out of it.
• You Cannot Grasp the True Form: Humans cannot understand the full infinity of God, and consequently our ability to study God through science and philosophy is limited. St. Thomas says we can use them to prove his existence, oneness, and so on, but that some details can be known only through divine revelation. He writes in Part I, q. 1, art. 1:
  "Sciences are differentiated according to the various means through which knowledge is obtained. For the astronomer and the physicist both may prove the same conclusion: that the earth, for instance, is round: the astronomer by means of mathematics (i.e. abstracting from matter), but the physicist by means of matter itself. Hence there is no reason why those things which may be learned from philosophical science, so far as they can be known by natural reason, may not also be taught us by another science so far as they fall within revelation. Hence theology included in sacred doctrine differs in kind from that theology which is part of philosophy."