History UsefulNotes / Swords

* Despite what ''Film/ThreeHundred'' would make you believe, the primary weapon of a Greek hoplite was the spear. However, this does not mean the Greeks didn't have any swords to speak of. The sword seen in that comic is very loosely based on the real-life ''makhaira'' (roughly "battle thing," also transliterated ''machaira'' or, via Latin, ''machaera''), a curved, single-edged weapon not unlike an oversized Gurkha kukri. The ''kopis'' ("cutter") was somewhat like a long makhaira. Some historians speculate that the Greeks first learned of this blade shape from their trade with the coastal Iberians, who used a sword with a similarly recurved blade, known in modern literature as a ''falcata'' (a Latin neologism meaning "sickle-shaped"). Others believe that the makhaira and kopis evolved in Greece and the Balkans from smaller knives during the Iron Age, and that Iberian falcatas actually descended from their Greek designs. In any case, UsefulNotes/{{Alexander|TheGreat}}'s armies went as far east as India, and it is considered plausible by many authorities that their introduction of this blade shape to India survives today as the Nepalese [[KukrisAreKool kukri]] that the Gurkhas still use.

* The ''gladius'', derived from Celtiberian designs ultimately from central and northern Hispania (the word is probably from a Celtic root, related to Gaelic ''claidheamh''), was typically manufactured of wrought iron rather than steel. Several types of gladius are known, all having a distinctive hilt made mostly of wood and/or bone with a small oval guard, straight grip and large pommel. The ''gladius hispaniensis'' commonly alluded to in Roman literature is identified with early blades that were around 24-27 inches long (61-69cm) not counting the tang. Later versions are named by archaeologists for their find sites and are shorter; the "Mainz type" was leaf-shaped, 20-22 inches (51-56cm), the "Fulham" was the same length but more angular, and the "Pompeii" could run as little as 18 inches (46cm) with straight edges and a short point. The short length shows how Roman tactics focused on short stabbing blows rather than the sweeping cuts with longer swords preferred by many of their enemies. This worked because of [[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_infantry_tactics Roman discipline and teamwork in battle]]; individually, less so. The gladius was used in conjunction with a very large rectangular or, in the late days of the Eastern Roman Empire, oval shield.

* These came in different variations, like the Scots claymore (''claidheamh mór'', "great sword") or the German ''Bidenhänder''/''Zweihänder'' ("two-hander"), and were very rare indeed. Their length and weight varied (from 145cm to 2m in length, and from 1.5-5kg), but the average zweihander was roughly 170cm in length and weighed around 3kg. Their primary purpose, aside from ceremonial designs, was for use by shock infantry to support a formation against enemy pike blocks, in the same way as halberds and similar polearms were used. They were also used by banner guards and personal guards because of how even one man with a two-handed sword could fight off multiple opponents [[RadialAsskicking even while surrounded]], constantly pivoting to face different foes and using great windmill cuts to threaten anyone who came within the sword's fearsome reach from any direction. They were expensive and difficult to master, requiring stamina, coordination throughout the entire body, situational awareness, and a good sense of the weapon's tempo and measure: soldiers who mastered their use were counted among the elite. Originals that survive tend to have been ceremonial or judicial weapons[[note]]For example, [[https://www.schlossmoosham.at Moosham Castle]] has a symbolic judicial sword. It was not used as an actual weapon - the judge could communicate a verdict by laying it on the table in front of him, with one of the two different sides of the blade facing upward. It has been said that the the blade side with the death verdict was the more merciful one.[[/note]]; many are parade "bearing swords" that are too large to fight with. However, while they sound very heavy and unwieldy, two-handers made for combat are surprisingly agile weapons due to the length and weight distribution of the hilt. Surviving Scots claymores have hilts typically about 50-60cm long; greater distance between the hands gives the user significant leverage to swing the heavy blade, with the hand near the crossguard acting as a fulcrum and the hand near the pommel generating power. The relatively larger mass and inertia of two-handed swords meant that they took longer to get up to speed as well as longer to slow down, and didn't turn on a dime; the trick was to use the momentum of the sword instead of fighting it, making large circles and chaining together multiple cuts, thrusts, and parries without making too many hard stops. Many styles of two-handed blade (particularly the zweihander) also had a "third grip" known as a ''ricasso'', a blunted portion of the blade below the crossguard that was used to provide more precise control of the weapon while striking. Some even had the ricasso wrapped in leather to make it easier to grip, and/or parrying hooks sprouting between the ricasso and sharp part of the blade as a secondary crossguard. Wielding the blade in such a manner made it almost like a polearm — hence why learning how to use one properly could be highly confusing for a seasoned soldier.

* It was developed at the end of the 17th century, based both on the rapier and on some models of compact infantry swords. Its hilt was relatively simple in form, often just a knuckle bow and a pair of plates or rings and often made entirely of soft brass, but in some cases decorated to the extreme. The blades were usually just over 30 inches (76cm) long, with a hollow-ground triangular cross section that made them both very light and very stiff. The smallsword was an exclusively thrusting weapon, lacking the mass or geometry for cutting, and the edges merely served to ease penetration. By the 18th century it was the most common sword carried by European gentlemen, as much of a fashion accessory as it was a weapon. Since it was the easiest sword to carry around it was frequently used as a self-defense weapon, and many fencing systems were centered around that. It was also considered the standard dueling weapon of the era, though with time it would be replaced by the pistol in that regard.

Generally the blade has a tail on the end, a ''tang'', around which the hilt is constructed. The majority of weapons we recognize as swords have ''hidden'' or ''rod'' tangs, which are narrow and pass through successive holes in the guard, grip and pommel[[note]]A hidden tang that's too thin and frail to survive serious use is called a ''rat tail'' tang and is often found on cheap decorative swords[[/note]]. The tang typically extends a little bit out the top of the pommel and is then peened (hammered until it mushrooms out), creating a physical seal that keeps the sword in one piece. (Basically the last thing you want in a fight is for the blade to go flying away at a random moment; even ''Series/Highlander'' proves this, because when their blade goes flying, it's when the wielder wants it to.) For the past few centuries, tangs have also sometimes been threaded and screwed into the pommel or a nut on top of the pommel; this method is particularly common on munitions-grade weapons and inexpensive replicas. This is a less secure connection than peening, but allows the hilt to be easily re-tightened or even disassembled and reassembled. Blunt "swords" used in theatrical fights are also usually threaded, since they see ''far'' more strenuous use than real swords and need to be re-tightened regularly. To summarize: how thick the tang is and how it's secured has a lot to do with a sword's durability, and modern sword enthusiasts will inspect a specimen carefully to figure out how it was built.\\

* Not to be confused with the ''balisong,'' which is often called a "[[ButterflyKnife butterfly knife]]." Also known as "bull's ear swords," they are popular in southern martial arts styles, such as Wing Chun. Usually dual-wielded, they consist of short dāo blades roughly the size of the wielder's forearm, allowing for speed, maneuverability and concealment.

->"''[[SwordTropes I like swords]].''"

* Eventually, the greatsword evolved into the classic "longsword." The longsword is largely distinguished from the earlier greatsword by having narrower blades favoring thrusting over slashing (particularly exemplified by the Type XV) or having blades that were well-suited to both (the Type XVIIIb). The English and Italian longsword was described as having only a slightly longer blade than the Viking-descended swords but with a longer hilt, while the Germans thought that a longsword's pommel should reach the armpit of the person with the tip down to the ground. The longsword's evolution was directly influenced by improvements in armor. As full plate armor improved and became more popular, fully-armored knights no longer needed a shield. In fact, [[ShieldsAreUseless the improvents in the coverage and effectiveness of armor meant shields actually contributed more weight to the kit than it was worth in terms of protection]] so was discarded almost entirely. As such the longsword developed into an instrument well-suited to exploiting the vulnerabilities of a man in armor, (thus the focus on thrusting over cutting; the better to punch through the gaps in plate) and the longsword became the favored sidearm of the fully armored knight or man-at-arms from about 1360 to 1520. However, single-handed swords remained more popular among less elite troops, and when weighed against the entirety of the Middle Ages, the heyday of the longsword's popularity was [[BrieferThanTheyThink shorter-lived than most people realize]]. The fencing manuals of the Liechtenauer and Fiore traditions base their pedagogy around the techniques of the longsword, and as these are a large portion of surviving manuscripts, they have provided us with a wealth of knowledge. At the same time, this kind of "survivor bias" can give us the impression that the longsword was more pervasive and dominant in society than it actually was.

* From about the late 8th century to the mid-11th century, Scandinavian Vikings raided, traded, and explored all over Eurasia, and modern people often refer to this time as UsefulNotes/TheVikingAge. The kinds of swords discussed below were actually used by cultures throughout Western Europe, including the kingdoms of the Franks and the Anglo-Saxons, but for the sake of convenience the term "Viking sword" is understood to refer to all swords of this style. All Viking-era swords were single-handed. The typical example was straight and double-edged, the blade being of lenticular cross section with a broad fuller down most of its length. However, there is an interesting subtype which is straight and single-edged, with a fuller and a hatchet point. Viking Era swords were very good at cutting, and their broad points could thrust effectively into an unarmored person. Since most fighters in early medieval battles and raids didn't even own a mail shirt--relying on their shields for protection--and since most warriors who owned a sword would also have a spear, armor penetration was not a high priority for swords. The crossguards of viking swords before the 10th century tend to be rather thick and stubby, without projecting quillons. One hypothesis is that the kind of shield common at the time, which was large, circular, and gripped in the center, took the lead in binding against and controlling the opponent's shield and sword, while the sword was dedicated to offense. There was not the kind of sword-on-sword binding and winding seen in later medieval systems, so a long crossguard to protect the hand may have been seen as unnecessary. Related to this, some practitioners such as Thegn Thrand note that having a crossguard and pommel of equal width allows one to use the sword hilt to brace against the center-gripped shield, avoiding discomfort to the knuckles while securing the shield against any pushing or manipulation. By the 10th century a more medieval form of hilt was appearing alongside the others, and swords with long crossguard quillons were called ''gaddhjalt'', meaning "spike-hilt." Pommels came in many types, including ones made from two pieces: a bar-like pommel plate peened to the tang, and a seperate, multi-lobed part that was fastened to the pommel plate by two rivets. Particularly towards the end of the Viking era, there were also simpler one-piece "brazil-nut" and "tea cozy" shapes. The hilt of a rich sword would be inlaid with gold, silver, or copper, incorporating motifs such as stripes, knotwork, animal designs, or the NonNaziSwastika.

* The ''spatha'' (from a Greek word for "blade"), used by Roman cavalry, resembled a gladius with a much longer, straight-edged or tapering blade. It may also be derived from long Celtic and Germanic swords given a more Roman-style hilt. It gradually replaced the gladius as the infantry sword, starting from the 2nd century AD. The spatha eventually evolved into the Viking weapons described below, and is thus the grandfather of European swords. Its name is also the etymon for the general word for "sword" in most modern Romance languages (Spanish and Portuguese ''espada'', French ''épée'',[[note]]A reminder here that Modern French drops intervocalic "s"es like nobody's business; the word was "espee" in Old and Middle French[[/note]] Italian ''spada'', and Romanian ''spadă'' being the most notable).

Popular in media yet widely misunderstood, swords from the La Tene culture of c. 500-0 BCE (broadly associated with Celtic-speaking peoples) were influential in Europe, as they were among the earliest examples of laminated swords there and led the way for the development of the spatha, Viking sword and Medieval sword.

European swordmakers had access to a great amount of high-quality iron, allowing them to create material-intensive swords in abundance. Contrary to popular belief, European swords weren't 30-lb. hunks of steel: the large zweihanders actually weigh around 5-7 lbs., while an sword comes in at around 2.5 lbs. European swords typically possess a blade with a thick base that tapers up to a point; inspecting the sword's distribution of mass or the degree of taper in its profile is generally a good indicator of its intended purpose.\\

'''Sword'''
* The Medieval weapon most commonly mislabeled a "broadsword" in popular media, this was a straight, double-edged, single-handed sword about three feet long overall. Before the 14th century, blades were of lenticular cross section and fullered (Oakeshott types X-XIV), but in the 14th and 15th centuries types with a flattened diamond or hexagonal cross section (types XV-XX) became more popular. This change concided with the transition from mail armor being the highest level of protection to the increasing use of plate armor, which encouraged stiffer and more acutely tapered blades for thrusting between the plates. The medieval sword had a "cruciform" or cross-shaped appearance, thanks to having a substantially wider crossguard than Viking Era swords. The crossguard could either be straight, or with the tips curved gently towards the blade. The main hypothesis for this change is that kite- and triangular-shaped shields with arm straps began to replace the large, circular, center-grip shields of the Viking Era. At the same time, small, portable, center-gripped bucklers were becoming popular. These types of shields didn't always lend themselves to the kind of binding play that the viking shield had been used for, nor did they cover the sword hand as completely, so the incidence of blade-on-blade contact increased significantly. A wider crossguard for protecting the hand and controlling the opposing blade was quite useful. The pommel, made of iron or sometimes bronze, could be made in a variety of shapes and was often an important ergonomic component of the sword grip. The sword is a versatile weapon, able to cut and thrust, and the cruciform hilt construction is a lot better for parrying off blows than shorter blades or curved blades. The second edge allows the weapon to cut in either direction; blows with the "short edge" (the edge which faces the wielder) are a major component of many Western martial arts. This is the blade design most commonly seen in use by feudal and Medieval knights, and was designed for use either on horseback or on foot. It was generally a one-handed weapon, often used together with a shield or a buckler. The term "Arming Sword" is often mistakenly used to denote any one-handed sword, but this term only entered the language in the 15th century and is associated with the sword's eventual transition from a main weapon to a side weapon. Similarly the terms "knightly sword" and "knight's sword" are retronyms applied to Late Middle Age and Renaissance weapons, referring to one-handed swords used after this transition.

* The falchion (ultimately from Latin ''falx'', "sickle") existed alongside the sword and had a similar one-handed hilt. The blade, however, was single-edged and usually flared toward the point. Though in some types the back edge of the point was clipped at an angle to make it better for stabbing, the falchion was mainly a slashing and chopping weapon, most useful against opponents who were not wearing metal armor. Contrary to popular belief, the falchion is not a top-heavy chopper that behaves like a cross beteen a sword and an axe. The ones with broad blades are actually rather light and responsive because they're so thin and distally tapered, and the gradual wedge cross section results in a very thin, acute edge. [[https://www.youtube.com/watch?time_continue=11&v=rUqWHx5k1Zo Matt Easton speculates]] that the falchion may have been invented to counter textile armor made of up to 30 layers of quilted cloth, which is surprisingly difficult to cut through with a sword unless it is very sharp indeed. They weren't necessarily low-status weapons, either, and knights were known to use them. While they appear frequently in Medieval art, few falchions have survived and they're much less popular in modern media than the tradition cruciform sword, possibly because of that sword's iconic status, and the falchion's similarity with the pop culture image of a "scimitar" when depicting Crusaders versus Muslims (never mind that Muslims during the early Crusades were using straight, cruciform swords themselves).

These swords, however, come from Central Asian influence via the Turks and especially the Mongols. Prior to their invasions, Middle-Eastern swords were mostly straight, double-edged, with wide crossguards and somewhat similar to European swords in profile. Swords of this description were the norm from the [[UsefulNotes/PersiansWithPistols Parthian Empire]] through the time of Muhammad and the early Crusades.\\

* The ''[[http://www.vikingsword.com/ethsword/kaskara/index.html kaskara]]'' and ''[[http://www.vikingsword.com/ethsword/takouba/ takouba]]'' are swords used by, respectively, people from Sudan and Chad. They are surprisingly similar to the Western sword, which led to early European theories that they originated from a lost tribe of whites, maybe Crusaders or King Solomon's mines. It is nowadays generally thought that the designs are local -- with possible influences from traded European or Arabian swords predating scimitars -- as it is not BeyondTheImpossible that engineers working with the same material (steel) to achieve the same result (a weapon) might arrive at the same design (a cruciform sword).

Swords have had a long history in China. The two most basic flavors are ''jiàn'' and ''dāo'', but others exist as well. Note that people (including the Chinese) would refer to the jiàn as a sword and the dāo as a knife, although the terms and meanings are often switched around depending on context. The main distinction is that the term dāo refers a single-edged cutting implement, regardless of size, shape or function, including polearms; the term jiàn will usually refer to anything with a narrow blade that ends in a point.

* The jiàn is a double-edged straight sword that has been in use for around 2,500 years. Early jiàn were made of bronze and were fairly short and wide, while there are some (probably ceremonial) specimens which are carved from a single solid piece of jade. Steel jiàn which were longer and narrower began to appear around 200 BCE, and since then there have been few significant changes in form or function. Later examples were forged from multiple layers of steel sandwiched together, utilizing a folding and differential hardening process similar to the Japanese method of forging (which it likely inspired). Many jiàn were one-handed, and both single-sword and double-sword forms are popular in kung fu, but there are also two-handed variants (called Shuangshou jiàn). The jiàn is considered the "Gentleman of Weapons" and is featured in pretty much any Chinese movie that contains a sword; the "[[Film/CrouchingTigerHiddenDragon Green Destiny]]" is the specimen non-swordgeek tropers are most likely to be familiar with. It is comparable in popularity to the katana, especially in mainland China, where many households buy a replica for display.

* The word ''kilij'', also transliterated ''kilic'' or, more properly, ''kılıç'', is simply Turkish for "sword" but in English is applied to the distinct sabers used by Turks since the early Middle Ages. Like other Central Asian sabers, the kilij has a wide crossguard with langets (small projections running parallel to the blade and perpendicular to the quillons). It also features a ''yelman'', a raised false edge near the point. The famous sword of Mehmed the Conqueror, who conquered Constantinople in the 15th century, is an early type with a slightly curved blade and canted hilt. By the 17th century the kilij became more curved, with a straight grip and large, bulbous pommel.

* Blades were often more folded, by orders of magnitude, than even most ancient Japanese swords, for similar reasons: the difficulty of refining steel. Forging a really good blade from the metal available to Norse smiths was a costly endeavor, and swords were expensive weapons, less common than the axe or spear, and often owned and carried only by noblemen or wealthy merchants. Among the best-known Viking Age swords were the "Ulfberht" swords, which were a typical Viking blade shape but forged out of much, much higher-quality "Damascus steel," enabling them to bend and cut with far greater flexibility and strength than other steel blades of the time. Ulfberht blades were extremely expensive and forged from crucible steel that was created at a far higher temperature than normal bloomery steel of the time, reducing the amount of slag impurities in the steel and thus resulting in far greater quality. One theory is that the steel ingots involved in their production actually came from river trading routes that stretched to the Middle East. Interestingly, these blades might've been an early case of brand recognition. The name comes from an inscription on the blades — ''+VLFBERHT+'' — and it is entirely possible that it was a mark of producer or a group of them, perhaps a family line. Proving that humans don't change over time, there were even [[ShoddyKnockoffProduct mass-produced rip-offs]], down to incorrectly imitated or misspelled inscriptions.

The other way to assemble a sword is to make the blade with a wide, flat ''slab'' tang (which is often, but not always, as long and wide as the fully-assembled grip; when it is, it's a ''full-profile'' tang. As an aside, "full tang" can mean either full-length or full-profile, [[SeparatedByACommonLanguage depending on the speaker]]). Usually the hilt parts are held on with pegs that pass sideways through them and the tang; other methods of attaching may include glue, flanges along the tang's edges, and/or a binding wrap such as wire. Japanese swords usually have a partial-length slab tang that fits into a slot in a one-piece grip, and is held in place by one or more removable pegs. Near Eastern and European full-profile-tang swords tend to have a pair of organic plates or ''scales'' held on with peened metal rivets to form the grip, like a kitchen knife. Some early European bronze swords lacked a tang and had the hilt riveted to the blade's shoulders; these "bronze rapiers" were made for stabbing, since a hard chopping blow could break the hilt from the blade.\\

* The ''spatha'' (from a Greek word for "blade"), used by Roman cavalry, resembled a gladius with a much longer, straight-edged or tapering blade. It may also be derived from long Celtic and Germanic swords given a more Roman-style hilt. It gradually replaced the gladius as the infantry sword, starting from the 2nd century AD. The spatha eventually evolved into the Viking weapons described below, and is thus the grandfather of European swords. Its name is also the etymon for the general word for "sword" in most modern Romance languages (Spanish and Portuguese ''espada'', French ''épée'', Italian ''spada'', and Romanian ''spadă'' being the most notable).

* The ''spatha'' (from a Greek word for "blade"), used by Roman cavalry, resembled a gladius with a much longer, straight-edged or tapering blade. It may also be derived from long Celtic and Germanic swords given a more Roman-style hilt. It gradually replaced the gladius as the infantry sword, starting from the 2nd century AD. The spatha eventually evolved into the Viking weapons described below, and is thus the grandfather of European swords.

One of the biggest problems with including swords in a work of fiction is that they have history. Sword design isn't just a matter of some smith saying, "Hey, wouldn't it be [[RuleOfCool cool]] if we made a sword with a curved blade and only one edge," but rather, some warrior coming to him with a problem -- "I need a sword that I can swing from the back of a galloping horse, without it getting stuck in the guy I just half-decapitated and then getting ripped out of my hand because I'm still on a galloping horse" -- and the smith saying, "What about a sword with a curved blade and only one edge?" If your character hails from a region that (somehow) has perfected ironsmithing but not horse-riding, it's unrealistic for them to have a cavalry saber.\\

Another problem with swords is that, as implied by all the above, they bring physics with them. If Character #1 swings with a {{BFS}} and Character #2 parries with a smallsword, you've just broken WillingSuspensionOfDisbelief: the above would be like stopping a sledgehammer with a golf club. A golf club held backwards. Even the most ArtisticLicensePhysics won't excuse this. Now, if the smallsword is made of {{mithril}}, {{orihalcum}} or some other form of {{Unobtanium}}, that's another thing... but then you need to start making up rules for your Unobtanium, because ''physics is still physics'', and any reader with a brain can judge just how miraculous your Unobtanium is if a golf club of the stuff can beat a BFS. Maybe it's easier to just, you know, ditch the idea of mis-matched weapons?

Another problem with swords is that, as implied by all the above, they bring physics with them. If Character #1 swings with a {{BFS}} and Character #2 parries with a RoyalRapier, you've just broken WillingSuspensionOfDisbelief: the above would be like stopping a sledgehammer with a golf club. A golf club held backwards. Even the most ArtisticLicensePhysics won't excuse this. Now, if the rapier is made of {{mithril}}, {{orihalcum}} or some other form of {{Unobtanium}}, that's another thing... but then you need to start making up rules for your Unobtanium, because ''physics is still physics'', and any reader with a brain can judge just how miraculous your Unobtanium is if a golf club of the stuff can beat a BFS. Maybe it's easier to just, you know, ditch the idea of mis-matched weapons?

Modern sword blades are frequently ''machined'', ground by machine out of steel bars. The results can be perfectly functional, but connoisseurs rarely regard them as having the same artistic merit as blades forged by hand. Forging also modifies the crystal structure of the metal, making the most deformed areas (like the edges) somewhat stronger and stiffer. This effect is called "work hardening" and is entirely absent in the machined blades.\\

European swordmakers had access to a great amount of high-quality iron, allowing them to create material-intensive swords in abundance. Contrary to popular belief, European swords weren't 30-lb. hunks of steel: the large zweihanders actually weigh around 5-7 lbs., while an sword comes in at around 2.5 lbs. European swords typically possess a blade with a thick base that tapers up to a point; inspecting the sword's distribution of mass or the degree of taper in its profile is generally a good indicator of its intended purpose.

Note that many sources miscategorize European cruciform swords under the name "broadswords." This is an anachronism. The term "broadsword" is actually a given name referring to a specific ''type'' of sword, just like "machete" or "falchion" is; the sword in particular is a broad, straight-bladed sword from ''after'' the Middle Ages. Various types were used throughout Europe, the best-known today being the Scottish basket-hilted broadsword. It was called a "broadsword" to differentiate it from the slim-bladed, stabbing-oriented rapier, and historians borrowed it as a catch-all term for ''all'' "broad"-bladed cutting swords, which (at the time) did not have a name as a category.

The curved blades that have been used in the Middle Eastern region, from Turkey to India, are usually referred to in English as "scimitars." As many different cultures used them, they came in a variety of forms. The blade can be single or double-edged, narrow or wide, even the shape of the curve varies. They usually have a short hilt, two quillons and an offset pommel. Varieties include the Indian ''talwar'' described above, the Arabian ''saif'', the Persian ''shamshir'' (from which the word "scimitar" may be derived), the Turkish ''kilij'', the Somali ''belawa'', the Moroccan ''nimcha'', and the Afghan ''pulwar'', among others.

These swords, however, come from Central Asian influence via the Turks and especially the Mongols. Prior to their invasions, Middle-Eastern swords were mostly straight, double-edged, with wide crossguards and somewhat similar to European swords in profile. Swords of this description were the norm from the [[UsefulNotes/PersiansWithPistols Parthian Empire]] through the time of Muhammad and the early Crusades.

* The ''[[http://www.vikingsword.com/ethsword/kaskara/index.html kaskara]]'' and ''[[http://www.vikingsword.com/ethsword/takouba/ takouba]]'' are swords used by, respectively, people from Sudan and Chad. They are surprisingly similar to the Western sword, which led to early European theories that they originated from a lost tribe of whites, maybe Crusaders or King Solomon's mines. It is nowadays generally thought that the designs are local, with possible influences from traded European or Arabian swords predating scimitars.

Both European and Asian weapons have been developed through centuries of martial tradition, and along with them various techniques to use them effectively, responding to changes in the combat environment as they occur. In other words, sword design isn't just a matter of some smith saying, "Hey, wouldn't it be [[RuleOfCool cool]] if we made a sword with a curved blade and only one edge," but rather, some warrior coming to him with a problem -- "I need a sword that I can swing from the back of a galloping horse, without it getting stuck in the guy I just half-decapitated and then getting ripped out of my hand because I'm still on a galloping horse" -- and the smith saying, "What about a sword with a curved blade and only one edge?" On top of this there was the ongoing LensmanArmsRace between weaponsmiths and armorers, each seeking to create a tool that would conquer the other's offering. Consequently, examining the design of a sword — what it was meant to do, and how it was meant to do it — will tell you a lot about how war was waged by its wielders.\\

* Finally, there are swords that specialize in stabbing. These tend to have narrow blades with a geometric cross-section — triangular, diamond, or even hexagonal — and seem to resemble very large needles. Sometimes they have cutting edges so that you can cut with them if necessary (and to deter an opponent from [[BareHandedBladeBlock grabbing the blade]]), but sometimes they don't; their point of balance is way back in the hilt, which makes for faster thrusting and more precise point control, but drastically lowers the power of a slashing attack. Some thrusting swords such as rapiers were generally meant for use in a civilian context, and were still plenty capable of inflicting vicious cutting wounds. Meanwhile, estoc-type blades with a thickened triangular or diamond cross-section tended to focus on anti-armor use at the expense of the edges, and tended to have minimal cutting ability.

As an alternative to folding, or indeed after folding, metals of different qualities could be welded together in something close to the final shape, a technique preferred by the Chinese and Japanese as well as the Romans. Most often hard high-carbon steel formed the cutting edges while softer steel/iron formed a spine or jacket that kept the blade from cracking. Traditional belt knives from Scandinavia and Finland are often still made this way.

Because good iron ore was difficult to come by in ancient Japan, swordsmiths had to remove impurities from the iron by folding. Folding iron is a common forging technique not unique to Japan, but Japanese blades continued to be folded longer than European blades due to the Japanese retaining the bloomery method for steel manufacture rather than a blast furnace (the starting material was generally black iron sand). Japanese smiths also used a technique called "leaching" in order to remove impurities from steel: the steel blank was left to "marinate" in acidic water (usually bogs and rice paddies) for months or even years. This would eventually cause the impurities to dissolve and leach out from the billet, which would later be reforged with multiple foldings, which forced the developed oxide and impurities out. The remains would then be arranged in the thin bands that improved the blade properties. Some swordsmiths in later periods are known to have incorporated imported Indian or Western iron brought by Portuguese or Dutch traders.

Almost all Japanese swords were laminates, with different grades of steel used for the edge and body of the blade and welded together by the swordsmith. The difference was compounded by the heat-treating process, in which layers of clay were applied along the spine before heat-hardening. When the blade was quenched, the steel in the edge would cool rapidly, forming a hard crystalline structure called martensite, while the clay would insulate the spine, causing it to cool more slowly into a fine, soft structure called pearlite. With careful polishing, the martensite would be visible as a frosty-looking line running down the middle of the blade, called a ''hamon'', and clay could be arranged to give the hamon a decorative pattern[[note]]In modern times, cheaper homogeneous blades are sometimes acid-etched or brushed with wire to give the appearance of a hamon[[/note]]. This combination meant that the blade could hold a sharp cutting edge which would be backed up by a less brittle spine, but also meant the edge was more damage-prone than a comparable homogeneous sword. The characteristic blade curvature is a byproduct of this differential hardening. While European and Middle Eastern sabers were forged in the curved shape from the start, Japanese blades were forged straight, and obtained their curvature solely from the different contraction of the edge and the back during hardening. Applying the clay incorrectly could very easily lead to the sword bending ''sideways'', which required reforging.

The vast majority of Japanese infantrymen in the feudal eras were either archers or spearmen. The spear was a much more economical use of rare and costly steel. The sword was the weapon of a nobleman and his retainers and bodyguards, the samurai. And then there was the naginata, a glaive that became the traditional weapon of Japanese noblewomen for the defense of the household, but these were likewise relatively rare, or, more precisely, ''became'' rare during the late ''Sengoku Jidai'', when the evolving tactics have led to the prevalence of the dense infantry formations that favored pikemen and arquebusiers, as the naginata required a relatively large open space around its wielder.

From about the 11th century on, Japanese armor was mostly made of lacquered leather laced together with silk. This lightweight armor offered good protection against arrows but was less effective against swords. Most native Japanese weapons were designed for cutting attacks, a cut being the quickest way to inflict maximum damage on a lightly-armored opponent. In the 14th-16th centuries, metal armor (often lacquered) became more and more common. Even ''ashigaru'' (peasant warriors) would wear mass-produced metal armor. However, despite improvements in metallurgy and the influence of European traders, Japanese metal armor was still lighter and weaker than European plate armor. Also, spears, bows, and eventually firearms were the main battlefield weapons of the ''Sengoku Jidai'', with the sword used mainly as a backup weapon. These factors, combined with the peace established after 1600, meant that Japanese swords remained primarily cutting weapons rather than evolving into thrusting weapons as European swords had.

'''Daitō, Shōtō and Tantō'''

Regardless of the specific type, Japanese swords are for the most part considered to fall into three categories depending on blade length, which is measured in ''shaku'', standardized since 1891 at about 11.93 inches (30.3cm), but prior to that being almost 14 inches (35.5cm). ''Daitō'' (大刀, "long sword") have blades of not less than two shaku (23.9 inches/60.6cm), and include katana and anything longer, ''shōtō'' (小刀, "little sword") are at least one shaku but less than two, and mainly covers wakizashi, and sword-hilted weapons with blades of less than one shaku are ''tantō'' (短刀, "short sword").

Both European and Asian weapons have been developed through centuries of martial tradition, and along with them various techniques to use them effectively, responding to changes in the combat environment as they occur. In other words, sword design has evolved through the ages, not just because smiths got better at making swords but because of the ongoing LensmanArmsRace between weaponsmiths and armorers, each seeking to create a tool that would conquer the other's offering. Consequently, examining the design of a sword — what it was meant to do, and how it was meant to do it — will tell you a lot about how war was waged by its wielders.\\

* Meaning "new military sword," mass-produced officers' blades used from 1934 to the end of WWII. Previously the Japanese military utilized the ''kyu-guntō'' ("old military sword"), which resembled a Western cavalry saber due to heavy Western influence during the Meiji Restoration of the latter 19th century. However, nationalists demanded a more "native" sword, so a design closely patterned on the katana was adopted. While some Type 94 Shin-Guntō used traditionally-made blades, the Type 95 and 98 versions all used a blade that was essentially a piece of machined steel with an edge ground onto it. The best blades of this type were said to be made out of used rails, although the personal swords of officers descended from the disbanded samurai class sometimes had blades that were family heirlooms. Unlike traditionally-made Japanese swords, shin-guntō have no recognized artistic merit in Japan and are therefore ineligible for registration. If one is found within the country, it may be immediately confiscated and destroyed. This probably has something to do with [[UsefulNotes/SecondSinoJapaneseWar some unpleasantness back in 1930's and 1940's]].

* Sometimes called a "Chinese broadsword" because [[ExactlyWhatItSaysOnThetin the blade happens to be broad and made in China]], though its curved blade has nothing to do with European straight-bladed broadswords; indeed, in shape it much more resembles the falchion. Dāo came in various shapes and sizes, with the most famous being the ''liuye dāo'' ("willow leaf saber") and ''niuwei dāo'' ("oxtail saber"); the former has a modestly tapered or non-tapered blade, while the latter is flared toward the point like a falchion. All types of dāo have a single main cutting edge. Before the Mongol invasion of the 13th century, most one-handed dāo were straight-bladed; afterward, curved types became dominant. Most have an inverted cup-shaped hilt to prevent rainwater or blood from flowing down the blade and onto the hand. Some have a partially sharpened back edge to allow for a thrust or a back-handed slash, but all share the characteristic of being used for either chopping or for slashing. Like the jiàn, the origins of the dāo stem back as far as the Bronze Age, though the dāo is considered more of a utilitarian weapon (nicknamed the "General of Weapons") than the jiàn, and was traditionally used by both cavalry and infantry alike.

European swordmakers had access to a great amount of high-quality iron, allowing them to create material-intensive swords in abundance. Contrary to popular belief, European swords weren't 30-lb. hunks of steel: a greatsword actually weighs around 5-7 lbs., while an sword comes in at around 2.5 lbs. European swords typically possess a blade with a thick base that tapers up to a point; inspecting the sword's distribution of mass or the degree of taper in its profile is generally a good indicator of its intended purpose.

* Somewhere around late 12th or 13th century, improvements in forging allowed swords with lengthened blades of 100-120cm, and an extended hilt allowing it to be used in either one or both hands. These "great swords" (e.g., Oakeshott types [=XIIa=] and [=XIIIa=]) eventually evolved into the classic "longsword" (e.g., Oakeshott types [=XVa=], [=XVIa=], [=XVII=], [=XVIIIa=]). The English longsword was described as having only a slightly longer blade than the Viking-descended swords but with a longer hilt, while the Germans thought that a longsword's pommel should reach the armpit of the person with the tip down to the ground. As advances in armorsmithing blessed shining armor with enough protection that heavy troops didn't need to rely on shields, while the longsword developed into an instrument well-suited to exploiting the vulnerabilities of a man in armor, the longsword was the favored sidearm of the fully armored knight or man-at-arms from about 1360 to 1520. However, single-handed swords remained more popular among less elite troops, and when weighed against the entirety of the Middle Ages, the heyday of the longsword's popularity was [[BrieferThanTheyThink shorter-lived than most people realize]]. The fencing manuals of the Liechtenauer and Fiore traditions base their pedagogy around the techniques of the longsword, and as these are a large portion of surviving manuscripts, they have provided us with a wealth of knowledge. At the same time, this kind of "survivor bias" can give us the impression that the longsword was more pervasive and dominant in society than it actually was.
* "Hand-and-a-half sword" is a more modern term (probably originating in the 19th century) used for these types of weapons. The term "bastard sword" is sometimes also used, since it's neither a one-hand nor a two-hand sword, but nowadays "longsword" is asserted as the proper term. Note that, especially in the gaming community (going back at least as far as Creator/GaryGygax), the term "longsword" is often incorrectly used to mean what is more properly called in period as just "a sword". The term "arming sword" didn't exist until the very end of the Middle Ages.

There are also a number of now-overlooked sub-techniques to go with swordsmanship: do you have a two-hand sword or would you like something in your off hand (sword sizes can be roughly split into two-handed[[note]]The real life {{BFS}}s, like the German [[OneHandedZweihander zweihander]], the Italian spadone or the Iberian montante (all different styles of the same weapon). The shortest started at around just under a metre and a half but could go as far as two and tended to weigh 2 to 3 kilograms.[[/note]], hand-and-a-half[[note]]This is usually what someone means when they say "bastard sword" or "longsword": swords that were short and light enough to use one-handed, but had a longer hilt which meant they could be used with both hands for more power and speed. They tended to be only slightly longer and heavier than one-handed swords.[[/note]] or one-handed[[note]]No more than a metre in length and either designed specifically to be used with something else in your off hand (such as a traditional arming sword with a shield) or just be a light blade that didn't need more than one hand to use (e.g. machetes, cutlasses). Either way, they tended to weigh one kilo or less.[[/note]])? And ''what'' would you like in your off hand? A dagger or main gauche, for counter-attacks? A buckler, for parrying (alongside possible swashing of your sword?--hence the term {{swashbuckler}})? A large wooden shield, which might trap your opponent's blade? How about half-swording, which is when you grab your own sword halfway down the blade[[note]]perfectly safe as long as you [[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vwuQPfvSSlo/ hold on firmly]], so as not to slice your own hand.[[/note]] for use against armor? Traditional DualWielding, with two swords of similar make, was an extremely unorthodox technique both in the East and West, and today is mostly excused by {{Rule of Cool}}. If you're on horseback, you'll probably opt to simply hold your sword out on one side and drag it along the ground while you gallop, or to simply hack and slash from the superior vantage point provided by your mount.\\

There were always a vast number of other weapons you could lay your hands on, like polearms (increased reach) or maces, hammers and morningstars (more crushing power). In fact, it's fairly likely that most people on battlefields used implements other than swords: a sword is a weapon, meant to injure people, with no other function; it would have been something of a luxury item[[note]]However, by the 11th century in England, a cheaply made arming sword would have been affordable to virtually anyone with any income at all, and while not a knightly weapon, it was plenty adequate and standard equipment for anyone with reason to travel between towns[[/note]].\\

* The ''spatha'' (from a Greek word for "blade"), used by Roman cavalry, resembled a gladius with a much longer, straight-edged or tapering blade. It may also be derived from long Celtic and Germanic swords given a more Roman-style hilt. It gradually replaced the gladius as the infantry sword, starting from the 2nd century AD. The spatha eventually evolved into the Viking weapons described below, and is thus the grandfather of European arming swords.

Popular in media yet widely misunderstood, swords from the La Tene culture of c. 500-0 BCE (broadly associated with Celtic-speaking peoples) were influential in Europe, as they were among the earliest examples of laminated swords there and led the way for the development of the spatha, Viking sword and Medieval arming sword.

* From the 10th century on, the Migration Era swords began to evolve into the arming sword used in TheMiddleAges. Ewart Oakeshott was not the one to classify these weapons; that job fell to another scholar named Jan Peterson, who identified nine basic flavors. That's why Oakeshott's catalogue starts with the [[http://www.myarmoury.com/feature_spotx.html Type X]].

European swordmakers had access to a great amount of high-quality iron, allowing them to create material-intensive swords in abundance. Contrary to popular belief, European swords weren't 30-lb. hunks of steel: a greatsword actually weighs around 5-7 lbs., while an arming sword comes in at around 2.5 lbs. European swords typically possess a blade with a thick base that tapers up to a point; inspecting the sword's distribution of mass or the degree of taper in its profile is generally a good indicator of its intended purpose.

* Somewhere around late 12th or 13th century, improvements in forging allowed arming swords with lengthened blades of 100-120cm, and an extended hilt allowing it to be used in either one or both hands. These "great swords" (e.g., Oakeshott types [=XIIa=] and [=XIIIa=]) eventually evolved into the classic "longsword" (e.g., Oakeshott types [=XVa=], [=XVIa=], [=XVII=], [=XVIIIa=]). The English longsword was described as having only a slightly longer blade than the arming sword but with a longer hilt, while the Germans thought that a longsword's pommel should reach the armpit of the person with the tip down to the ground. As advances in armorsmithing blessed shining armor with enough protection that heavy troops didn't need to rely on shields, while the longsword developed into an instrument well-suited to exploiting the vulnerabilities of a man in armor, the longsword was the favored sidearm of the fully armored knight or man-at-arms from about 1360 to 1520. However, single-handed swords remained more popular among less elite troops, and when weighed against the entirety of the Middle Ages, the heyday of the longsword's popularity was [[BrieferThanTheyThink shorter-lived than most people realize]]. The fencing manuals of the Liechtenauer and Fiore traditions base their pedagogy around the techniques of the longsword, and as these are a large portion of surviving manuscripts, they have provided us with a wealth of knowledge. At the same time, this kind of "survivor bias" can give us the impression that the longsword was more pervasive and dominant in society than it actually was.
* "Hand-and-a-half sword" is a more modern term (probably originating in the 19th century) used for these types of weapons. The term "bastard sword" is sometimes also used, since it's neither a one-hand nor a two-hand sword, but nowadays "longsword" is asserted as the proper term. Note that, especially in the gaming community (going back at least as far as Creator/GaryGygax), the term "longsword" is often incorrectly used to mean what is more properly called an arming sword.

* The falchion (ultimately from Latin ''falx'', "sickle") existed alongside the arming sword and had a similar one-handed hilt. The blade, however, was single-edged and usually flared toward the point. Though in some types the back edge of the point was clipped at an angle to make it better for stabbing, the falchion was mainly a slashing and chopping weapon, most useful against opponents who were not wearing metal armor. Contrary to popular belief, the falchion is not a top-heavy chopper that behaves like a cross beteen a sword and an axe. The ones with broad blades are actually rather light and responsive because they're so thin and distally tapered, and the gradual wedge cross section results in a very thin, acute edge. [[https://www.youtube.com/watch?time_continue=11&v=rUqWHx5k1Zo Matt Easton speculates]] that the falchion may have been invented to counter textile armor made of up to 30 layers of quilted cloth, which is surprisingly difficult to cut through with a sword unless it is very sharp indeed. They weren't necessarily low-status weapons, either, and knights were known to use them. While they appear frequently in Medieval art, few falchions have survived and they're much less popular in modern media than the arming sword, possibly because of the cruciform sword's iconic status, and the falchion's similarity with the pop culture image of a "scimitar" when depicting Crusaders versus Muslims (never mind that Muslims during the early Crusades were using straight, cruciform swords themselves).

* The word "messer" refers to a family of slightly curved, single-edged blades, with a pointy tip fit for thrusts, in different incarnations one- or two-handed. The German names include several varieties of ''Messer'', meaning simply "knife," including the ''Grosses Messer'' ("great knife"), ''Langes Messer'' ("long knife") and ''Kriegsmesser'' ("war knife"). The difference between them is somewhat arbitrary, though one may opt to differentiate between one- and two-handed versions. As evidenced by its name, the messer was a humble weapon in origin, less "knightly" than a sword, but simpler to make — which is perhaps best evidenced in that it originally had a guard consisting of a nail (''nagel'') sticking out of the handle. In terms of size and utility, as well as the ease of wearing it at one's side, it was an alternative to the arming sword. While their popularity is often attributed to being a loophole around laws forbidding commoners from owning swords, this is totally incorrect. In fact, most German cities ''required'' citizens to own swords for militia duty. The more likely explanation is that knifemakers used it to get around guild regulations saying that only swordsmiths could make and sell swords. Many fencing manuals teach the use of it, on its own or with a buckler.

* A neologism, "sidesword" refers to transitional forms between the Medieval arming sword and the Renaissance rapier. They started as virtually identical to the arming sword, but with more elaborate means of hand protection than a simple crossguard. This could be as simple as a ring to protect the index finger when placed on the quillon (a common practice to gain more precise control) to more complex sets of bars and rings later on. The earliest of these weapons appear around the end of the 14th century, and they became more common and elaborate up to the point where they evolved into the rapier.

* The sword was not only used in combat, but sometimes also in judicial executions. Nobles sentenced to death felt that even on an executioner's scaffold they deserved service befitting their class: besides being a more prestigious weapon which required more skill to use well, a sharp sword used by a specialist headsman was more likely to behead the condemned in one clean cut than the axe, which often required multiple blows to sever the neck. This could be done with a regular sword, as was often the case in TheLateMiddleAges and in military atrocities, but by the Renaissance there was reason to developed a more specialized implement. The difference between an executioner's working environment and a battlefield is obvious: no stabbing was involved, reach was not an issue, and there was much greater emphasis on carefully aiming your blows. An executioner's sword would often have a blade as short as an arming sword, but still with a two-handed grip, and forward-balanced. The blade was broad and thin for ease of cutting, with a rounded, non-fuctioning point. These changes ensured that an executioner had a proper tool to lop the head, or occasionally limbs, off of a static target in one blow. Unlike beheading with the ax, for which the condemned placed their neck on a chopping block and recieved a downward blow, the custom for beheading by the sword was to have the condemned kneel--straight-backed and blindfolded--facing away from the executioner, who would decapitate them with a single horizontal blow.

These swords, however, come from Central Asian influence via the Turks and especially the Mongols. Prior to their invasions, Middle-Eastern swords were mostly straight, double-edged, with wide crossguards and somewhat similar to European arming swords in profile. Swords of this description were the norm from the [[UsefulNotes/PersiansWithPistols Parthian Empire]] through the time of Muhammad and the early Crusades.

* The ''[[http://www.vikingsword.com/ethsword/kaskara/index.html kaskara]]'' and ''[[http://www.vikingsword.com/ethsword/takouba/ takouba]]'' are swords used by, respectively, people from Sudan and Chad. They are surprisingly similar to the Western arming sword, which led to early European theories that they originated from a lost tribe of whites, maybe Crusaders or King Solomon's mines. It is nowadays generally thought that the designs are local, with possible influences from traded European or Arabian swords predating scimitars.

'''Arming Sword'''
* The Medieval knightly weapon most commonly mislabeled a "broadsword" in popular media, this was a straight, double-edged, single-handed sword about three feet long overall. Before the 14th century, blades were of lenticular cross section and fullered (Oakeshott types X-XIV), but in the 14th and 15th centuries types with a flattened diamond or hexagonal cross section (types XV-XX) became more popular. This change concided with the transition from mail armor being the highest level of protection to the increasing use of plate armor, which encouraged stiffer and more acutely tapered blades for thrusting between the plates. The medieval sword had a "cruciform" or cross-shaped appearance, thanks to having a substantially wider crossguard than Viking Era swords. The crossguard could either be straight, or with the tips curved gently towards the blade. The main hypothesis for this change is that kite- and triangular-shaped shields with arm straps began to replace the large, circular, center-grip shields of the Viking Era. At the same time, small, portable, center-gripped bucklers were becoming popular. These types of shields didn't always lend themselves to the kind of binding play that the viking shield had been used for, nor did they cover the sword hand as completely, so the incidence of blade-on-blade contact increased significantly. A wider crossguard for protecting the hand and controlling the opposing blade was quite useful. The pommel, made of iron or sometimes bronze, could be made in a variety of shapes and was often an important ergonomic component of the sword grip. The arming sword is a versatile weapon, able to cut and thrust, and the cruciform hilt construction is a lot better for parrying off blows than shorter blades or curved blades. The second edge allows the weapon to cut in either direction; blows with the "short edge" (the edge which faces the wielder) are a major component of many Western martial arts. This is the blade design most commonly seen in use by feudal and Medieval knights, and was designed for use either on horseback or on foot. It was generally a one-handed weapon, often used together with a shield or a buckler.

Around 1300-500 BCE, depending on the region, bronze was replaced in most tools and weapons by iron. Iron deposits are relatively widespread, while tin occurs in only a few places and often needed to be traded for over long distances; thus, once ironworking had been mastered, it became cheaper than bronze. Interestingly, since copper alloys don't corrode as readily under most conditions as iron, many bronze swords are far better-preserved than younger iron and steel ones.\\