History UsefulNotes / Swords

There are two components a sword needs to have: a handle (the ''hilt'') and a blade. Hilts incorporate a grip and often a ''guard'', which prevents the hand of the wielder from slipping onto the blade and may be used to parry an opponent's blade. The exact shape of the guard can vary wildly from weapon to weapon (contrast the C-shaped basket hilt on a backsword to the little oval ''tsuba'' on a katana). Finally, many swords have a ''pommel'', which is the knob on the other end of the hilt. This pommel is often weighted to counterbalance the blade; it also has something to do with how the sword is built.

Generally the blade has a tail on the end, a ''tang'', around which the hilt is constructed. The majority of weapons we recognize as swords have ''hidden'' or ''rod'' tangs, which are narrow and pass through successive holes in the guard, grip and pommel[[note]]A hidden tang that's too thin and frail to survive serious use is called a ''rat tail'' tang and is often found on cheap decorative swords[[/note]]. The tang typically extends a little bit out the top of the pommel and is then peened (hammered until it mushrooms out), creating a physical seal that keeps the sword in one piece. (The TV show ''Series/{{Highlander}}'' notwithstanding, basically the last thing you want in a fight is for the blade to go flying away.) For the past few centuries, tangs have also sometimes been threaded and screwed into the pommel or a nut on top of the pommel; this method is particularly common on munitions-grade weapons and inexpensive replicas. This is a less secure connection than peening, but allows the hilt to be easily re-tightened or even disassembled and reassembled. Blunt "swords" used in theatrical fights are also usually threaded, since they see FAR more strenuous use than real swords and need to be re-tightened regularly. How thick the tang is and how it's secured thus has a lot to do with a sword's durability, and modern sword enthusiasts will inspect a specimen carefully to figure out how it was built.

The other way to assemble a sword is to make the blade with a wide, flat ''slab'' tang (which is often, but not always, as long and wide as the fully-assembled grip; when it is, it's a ''full-profile'' tang. As an aside, "full tang" can mean either full-length or full-profile, [[SeparatedByACommonLanguage depending on the speaker]]). Usually the hilt parts are held on with pegs that pass sideways through them and the tang; other methods of attaching may include glue, flanges along the tang's edges, and/or a binding wrap such as wire. Japanese swords usually have a partial-length slab tang that fits into a slot in a one-piece grip, and is held in place by one or more removable pegs. Near Eastern and European full-profile-tang swords tend to have a pair of organic plates or ''scales'' held on with peened metal rivets to form the grip, like a kitchen knife. Some early European bronze swords lacked a tang and had the hilt riveted to the blade's shoulders; these "bronze rapiers" were made for stabbing, since a hard chopping blow could break the hilt from the blade.

A full list of the terms for different parts of various types of sword would be unwieldy for this page, although words like ''quillon'', ''ricasso'', ''sageo'' and so on are handy to know. Overviews may be found for European swords [[https://myarmoury.com/feature_glossary.html here]] and for Japanese ones [[https://www.japaneseswordindex.com/glossary.htm here]].

Both European and Asian weapons have been developed through centuries of martial tradition, and along with them various techniques to use them effectively, responding to changes in the combat environment as they occur. In other words, sword design has evolved through the ages, not just because smiths got better at making swords but because of the ongoing LensmanArmsRace between weaponsmiths and armorers, each seeking to create a tool that would conquer the other's offering. Consequently, examining the design of a sword — what it was meant to do, and how it was meant to do it — will tell you a lot about how war was waged by its wielders.

Cutting motions are of limited use against metal armor. To get through to someone who is clad in steel, you'll really need more of a stab or thrust between individual pieces of armor; this was true even in the days of maille[[note]]calling it "chain mail" is redundant, as there ''is'' no such thing as non-chain mail. You can have scales ''over'' mail, or plate over mail, or even splinted mail which has integrated plates, but all of these involve chain.[[/note]] and only became more so as full plate armor was layered over it. Alternatively, one could also cause injury through armor using sheer blunt force trauma, as even a man fully clad in steel was susceptible to being stunned by a steel mace swung directly at his helmeted head. That said, in early periods such as Viking Age Europe you would probably find that most non-elite combatants didn't wear any metal armor besides a helmet, and relied mostly on their shields, meaning that a sword that could only cut well was still very useful.

By the 15th century, full plate armor made of hardened and spring-tempered steel was commonplace in Western Europe; thus, impetus was placed on the development of weaponry that could defeat a man wearing such pieces of armor without sacrificing versatility. The pollaxe was one such weapon that demonstrates this focus, combining an axe head with both a spear point and a hammerhead on a 5-6 foot wooden shaft. Swords in particular had their blades made narrower and stiffer, and their grips lengthened in order to accommodate the use of both hands for a more forceful swing or thrust, but the most effective technique for fighting in armor was "half-swording," or gripping the middle of the blade with the off hand to guide the point into the gaps in the plate. The increasing effectiveness of firearms and pike formations in the 16th century favored the use of massed troops instead of individually talented warriors, and the fully-armored knight wielding the lance was replaced by the three-quarter or half-armored cuirassier armed with a sword and a pair of pistols.

Meanwhile, the Japanese, due to their poor mineral resources, continued to use armor made largely of hardened leather and soft iron, and rarely had to deal with outsiders due to their insular island-nation tendencies. As such, Japanese weapons are specialized towards warfare ''within'' Japan; indeed, the tachi, the main ancestor to the katana, tended to break its tip off when used against Mongolian and Korean armor. That said, some Japanese swordsmiths were able to accomplish quite astonishing things with the low-carbon steel available to them, though the techniques they used to achieve differential tempering of different regions of the blade were labor-intensive, to say the least. As was the case in Europe, Japanese swords also underwent an evolution that, among other things, resulted in thicker blades and deeper edges.

There are also a number of now-overlooked sub-techniques to go with swordsmanship: do you have a two-hand sword or would you like something in your off hand (sword sizes can be roughly split into two-handed[[note]]The real life {{BFS}}s, like the German [[OneHandedZweihander zweihander]], the Italian spadone or the Iberian montante (all different styles of the same weapon). The shortest started at around just under a metre and a half but could go as far as two and tended to weigh 2 to 3 kilograms.[[/note]], hand-and-a-half[[note]]This is usually what someone means when they say "bastard sword" or "longsword": swords that were short and light enough to use one-handed, but had a longer hilt which meant they could be used with both hands for more power and speed. They tended to be only slightly longer and heavier than one-handed swords.[[/note]] or one-handed[[note]]No more than a metre in length and either designed specifically to be used with something else in your off hand (such as a traditional arming sword with a shield) or just be a light blade that didn't need more than one hand to use (e.g. machetes, cutlasses). Either way, they tended to weigh one kilo or less.[[/note]])? And ''what'' would you like in your off hand? A dagger or main gauche, for counter-attacks? A buckler, for parrying? A large wooden shield, which might trap your opponent's blade? How about half-swording, which is when you grab your own sword halfway down the blade[[note]]perfectly safe as long as you hold on firmly and don't slide your flesh against the edge[[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vwuQPfvSSlo/]].[[/note]] for use against armor? Traditional DualWielding, with two swords of similar make, was an extremely unorthodox technique both in the East and West, and today is mostly excused by {{Rule of Cool}}. If you're on horseback, you'll probably opt to simply hold your sword out on one side and drag it along the ground while you gallop, or to simply hack and slash from the superior vantage point provided by your mount.

There were always a vast number of other weapons you could lay your hands on, like polearms (increased reach) or maces, hammers and morningstars (more crushing power). In fact, it's fairly likely that most people on battlefields used implements other than swords: a sword is a weapon, meant to injure people, with no other function; it would have been something of a luxury item[[note]]However, by the 11th century in England, a cheaply made arming sword would have been affordable to virtually anyone with any income at all, and while not a knightly weapon, it was plenty adequate and standard equipment for anyone with reason to travel between towns[[/note]].

'''Materials and Workmanship'''

Though sword-like weapons such as the [[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macuahuitl macahuitl]] can be made with Stone Age technology, "swords" as we generally understand them originated in the Bronze Age about 5,000 years ago. Bronze is mostly copper, a very soft metal, with an alloying agent to harden it; early bronze was made with arsenic, but this was soon replaced by tin, usually making up around 10 percent of the alloy by weight[[note]]Tin by itself is also very soft; it's the combination of tin and copper that becomes hard enough for tools and weapons[[/note]]. A few Chinese swords like the famous [[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sword_of_Goujian Sword of Goujian]] have edges with a much higher tin content, so they're extra-hard and stay sharp longer. To make a sword, bronze is normally melted down and cast to its final shape in stone or clay molds. The edges then may be hammered at room temperature (cold-forging) to harden them so the blade will be stiffer and stay sharp longer.

Around 1300-500 BCE, depending on the region, bronze was replaced in most tools and weapons by iron. Iron deposits are relatively widespread, while tin occurs in only a few places and often needed to be traded for over long distances; thus, once ironworking had been mastered, it became cheaper than bronze. Interestingly, since copper alloys don't corrode as readily under most conditions as iron, many bronze swords are far better-preserved than younger iron and steel ones.

Pure iron is softer than the best tool bronze; adding carbon makes it harder, but heating it to the melting point in a charcoal furnace causes it to absorb too much carbon from the air, becoming the super-hard pig iron, which is too brittle for swords. For the same reason, cast iron objects like [[FryingPanOfDoom skillets]] are very thick and heavy for strength. Instead, iron is usually carburized by various processes (or decarburized, in the case of pig iron), then heated to glowing hot and soft but not molten, and hammered to shape (hot-forging).

Modern sword blades are frequently ''machined'', ground by machine out of steel bars. The results can be perfectly functional, but connoisseurs rarely regard them as having the same artistic merit as blades forged by hand. Forging also modifies the crystal structure of the metal, making the most deformed areas (like the edges) somewhat stronger and stiffer. This effect is called "work hardening" and is entirely absent in the machined blades.

Steel is iron with a tiny amount of added carbon, which has radical effects on its physical properties. In modern times, when alloy contents can be precisely controlled, functional swords are typically made with steels that are between 0.5 and 1 percent carbon. At this range, steel can be hardened by heating and rapid cooling, and ''tempered'' by heating to a lower temperature and slower cooling to remove some of the resulting brittleness. Heat-hardening and tempering are together known as ''heat-treatment''. Properly hardened and spring-tempered steel can be flexed and will bounce back to its original shape, and even original Medieval swords have been known to demonstrate this quality if made by a master smith.

'''Folding the blade'''

One particularly famous technique in swordmaking is that of "folding the blade," or in technical terms ''forge folding''. Folding iron is a very common forging technique used in making many swords around the world, but has for some reason become mainly associated with Japan. Contrary to popular belief, folding a sword does not aid its cutting or edge-holding properties at all; it merely ensures an even distribution of carbon within the steel (while some other alloying elements will remain layered). The simultaneous smithing also drives any residues of slag off the steel. It is sometimes said that blades are folded "thousands of times," but this is a misunderstanding. Rather, folding just eleven times (or fewer, if you start by welding the billet out of several smaller pieces) creates thousands of ''layers'', which are visible as a grainy pattern on the finished blade if it's correctly polished and etched. Even if thousands of folds could be achieved in a reasonable timeframe, it would be both pointless and undesirable, as the billet would become homogeneous long before then, and folding the hot metal too many times allows carbon to escape, leaving the finished blade softer and more easily bent and blunted. The Japanese swordsmiths consider ten foldings (1,024 layers) as the absolute maximum.

'''Forge welding and pattern welding'''

Forge folding is often used alongside forge welding, in which several pieces of metal are heated in a forge and hammered into a single piece of ''laminated'' or ''piled'' metal. This technique dates from times before large amounts of homogeneous steel could be produced, so to make a sword-sized billet, the smith assembled smaller pieces of steel and iron[[note]]The alternative using primitive smelting techniques was to make the blade entirely of wrought iron, which didn't stay sharp as long and was more liable to take a set when bent. Slag inclusions can give forged wrought iron a stringy appearance superficially similar to laminated steel[[/note]]. Folding was then frequently used to give the blade more-or-less homogeneous qualities.

Twisting a billet made of various kinds of steel and iron produced a rippled pattern, which on the finished blade may be revealed through polishing and etching; such a blade is called ''pattern-welded.'' In Europe, better-quality sword blades were frequently pattern-welded prior to the High Middle Ages. The surface pattern looks similar to Damascus steel and modern sellers often bill it as "genuine Damascus," though sword buffs often prefer to call it "false Damascus," as it's made by an entirely different process (see "Middle-Eastern Swords").

Though sword-like weapons such as the [[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macuahuitl macahuitl]] can be made with Stone Age technology, "swords" as we generally understand them originated in the Bronze Age about 5,000 years ago. Bronze is mostly copper, a very soft metal, with an alloying agent to harden it; early bronze was made with arsenic, but this was soon replaced by tin, usually making up around 10 percent of the alloy by weight[[note]]Tin by itself is also very soft; it's the combination of tin and copper that becomes hard enough for tools and weapons[[/note]]. A few Chinese swords like the famous [[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sword_of_Goujian Sword of Goujian]] have edges with a much higher tin content, so they're extra-hard and stay sharp longer. To make a sword, bronze is normally melted down and cast to its final shape in stone or clay molds.

Steel is iron with 0.05-2 percent carbon; the best type for swords, high-carbon steel, is 0.5-1 percent carbon. At this range, it can be hardened by heating and rapid cooling, and ''tempered'' by heating to a lower temperature and slower cooling to remove some of the resulting brittleness. Heat-hardening and tempering are together known as ''heat-treatment''. Properly hardened and spring-tempered steel can be flexed and will bounce back to its original shape, and even original Medieval swords have been known to demonstrate this quality if made by a master smith.

* From about the late 8th century to the mid-11th century, Scandinavian Vikings raided, traded, and explored all over Eurasia, and modern people often refer to this time as UsefulNotes/TheVikingAge. The kinds of swords discussed below were actually used by cultures throughout Western Europe, including the kingdoms of the Franks and the Anglo-Saxons, but for the sake of convenience the term "Viking sword" is understood to refer to all swords of this style. All Viking-era swords were single-handed. The typical example was straight and double-edged, the blade being of lenticular cross section with a broad fuller down most of its length. However, there is an interesting subtype which is straight and single-edged, with a fuller and a hatchet point. Viking Era swords were very good at cutting, and their broad points could thrust effectively into an unarmored person. Since most fighters in early medieval battles and raids didn't even own a mail shirt--relying on their shields for protection--and since most warriors who owned a sword would also have a spear, armor penetration was not a high priority for swords. The crossguards of viking swords before the 10th century tend to be rather thick and stubby, without projecting quillons. One hypothesis is that the kind of shield common at the time, which was large, circular, and gripped in the center, took the lead in binding against and controlling the opponent's shield and sword, while the sword was dedicated to offense. There would have been little direct blade-on-blade contact, so a long crossguard to protect the hand may have been seen as unnecessary. Related to this, some practitioners such as Thegn Thrand note that having a crossguard and pommel of equal width allows one to use the sword hilt to brace against the center-gripped shield, avoiding discomfort to the knuckles while securing the shield against any pushing or manipulation. By the 10th century a more medieval form of hilt was appearing alongside the others, and swords with long crossguard quillons were called ''gaddhjalt'', meaning "spike-hilt." Pommels came in many types, including ones made from two pieces: a bar-like pommel plate peened to the tang, and a seperate, multi-lobed part that was fastened to the pommel plate by two rivets. Particularly towards the end of the Viking era, there were also simpler one-piece "brazil-nut" and "tea cozy" shapes. The hilt of a rich sword would be inlaid with gold, silver, or copper, incorporating motifs such as stripes, knotwork, animal designs, or the NonNaziSwastika.

* From about the late 8th century to the mid-11th century, Scandinavian Vikings raided, traded, and explored all over Eurasia, and modern people often refer to this time as UsefulNotes/TheVikingAge. The kinds of swords discussed below were actually used by cultures throughout Western Europe, including the kingdoms of the Franks and the Anglo-Saxons, but for the sake of convenience the term "Viking sword" is understood to refer to all swords of this style. All Viking-era swords were single-handed. The typical example was straight and double-edged, the blade being of lenticular cross section with a broad fuller down most of its length. However, there is an interesting subtype which is straight and single-edged, with a fuller and a hatchet point. Viking Era swords were very good at cutting, and their broad points could thrust effectively into an unarmored person. Since most fighters in early medieval battles and raids didn't even own a mail shirt--relying on their shields for protection--and since most warriors who owned a sword would also have a spear, armor penetration was not a high priority for swords. The crossguards of viking swords before the 10th century tend to be rather thick and stubby, without projecting quillons. One hypothesis is that the kind of shield common at the time, which was large, circular, and gripped in the center, took the lead in binding against and controlling the opponent's shield and sword, while the sword was dedicated to offense. There would have been little direct blade-on-blade contact, so a long crossguard to protect the hand may have been seen as unnecessary. Related to this, some practitioners such as Thegn Thrand note that having a crossguard and pommel plate of equal length allows one to use the hilt to brace against the shield, preventing the opponent from manipulating the shield while avoiding discomfort to the knuckles. By the 10th century a more medieval form of hilt was appearing alongside the others, and swords with long crossguard quillons were called ''gaddhjalt'', meaning "spike-hilt." Pommels came in many types, including ones made from two pieces: a bar-like pommel plate peened to the tang, and a seperate, multi-lobed part that was fastened to the pommel plate by two rivets. Particularly towards the end of the Viking era, there were also simpler one-piece "brazil-nut" and "tea cozy" shapes. The hilt of a rich sword would be inlaid with gold, silver, or copper, incorporating motifs such as stripes, knotwork, animal designs, or the NonNaziSwastika.

* From about the late 8th century to the mid-11th century, Scandinavian Vikings raided, traded, and explored all over Eurasia, and modern people often refer to this time as UsefulNotes/TheVikingAge. The kinds of swords discussed below were actually used by cultures throughout Western Europe, including the kingdoms of the Franks and the Anglo-Saxons, but for the sake of convenience the term "Viking sword" is understood to refer to all swords of this style. All Viking-era swords were single-handed. The typical example was straight and double-edged, the blade being of lenticular cross section with a broad fuller down most of its length. However, there is an interesting subtype which is straight and single-edged, with a fuller and a hatchet point. Viking Era swords were very good at cutting, and their broad points could thrust effectively into an unarmored person. Since most fighters in early medieval battles and raids didn't even own a mail shirt--relying on their shields for protection--and since most warriors who owned a sword would also have a spear, armor penetration was not a high priority for swords. The crossguards of viking swords before the 10th century tend to be rather thick and stubby, without projecting quillons. One hypothesis is that the kind of shield common at the time, which was large, circular, and gripped in the center, took the lead in binding against and controlling the opponent's shield and sword, while the sword was dedicated to offense. There would have been little direct blade-on-blade contact, so a long crossguard to protect the hand may have been seen as unnecessary. By the 10th century a more medieval form of hilt was appearing alongside the others, and swords with long crossguard quillons were called ''gaddhjalt'', meaning "spike-hilt." Pommels came in many types, including ones made from two pieces: a bar-like pommel plate peened to the tang, and a seperate, multi-lobed part that was fastened to the pommel plate by two rivets. Particularly towards the end of the Viking era, there were also simpler one-piece "brazil-nut" and "tea cozy" shapes. The hilt of a rich sword would be inlaid with gold, silver, or copper, incorporating motifs such as stripes, knotwork, animal designs, or the NonNaziSwastika.

* Most sword historians nowadays use "broadsword" in a fairly specific way, referring to a sword produced after the Middle Ages with a wide blade like an arming sword but usually a more complex hilt. Backswords, used in the same period, were very similar in profile but had single-edged blades with a triangular ("backed") cross section; this gave the advantage that the cross section could taper to a more accute edge than a double-edged sword, while nonetheless maintaining stiffness because of the thick spine. Note that not all museum catalogues and reference books regard backswords as a distinct category; they are often klept as broadswords which happen to be single-edged. Hilts ranged from relatively simple shells and side rings to the "crab claw" hilt with four downcurved quillons and a wide knuckle guard, to baskets that completely enclosed the hand, like the Slavo-Italian ''schiavona'', and the "half-basket" or "mortuary" hilt of the 17th century which was very common during the UsefulNotes/EnglishCivilWar. Broadswords and backswords were initially used in combination with shields and bucklers, but later on just by themselves.

* Unarguably the most famous Japanese weapon by far is [[KatanasAreJustBetter the katana]]. While the word "katana" in Japanese refers to any sword with a curved, single-edged blade, many sword-lovers use the term to define the moderately curved sword of moderate length, originally called the ''uchigatana'' (打刀, "striking sword"). Most katana exhibit the distinctive long hilt of about 1/4 of the overall length, which provides balance when used with a one-handed grip and leverage when used with two, but they are not the only Japanese swords with this feature. The katana is largely associated with samurai, though throughout most of samurai history it was only one of their three primary weapons, the others being the spear and the bow. It wasn't until the 17th century that the katana became so synonymous with the samurai.

* Swords dated to the 4th to 7th centuries CE, referred to as Migration Era swords, originated when Germanic tribes appropriated the Roman ''spatha'', discussed below. During the decline and collapse of the Western Roman Empire, the Germanic tribes began to produce their own versions of the spatha, which transitioned into the Viking Age swords discussed immediately below. The sword quickly became a marker of social standing in Germanic society, generally being a rare and expensive weapon for the elite while commoners made do with the spear, axe, and knife. Blades were pattern welded by forging and folding rods into alternating layers of steel, and then twisting them to create beautiful designs that were revealed when the blade was polished and etched in acid. Blades were made with parallel edges and spatulate points; it's not that one couldn't thrust with them, since a broad sharpened point goes right into unarmored foes, but the shape and balance of such blades were disposed toward cutting. The cross section was roughly lenticular, and there were both fullered and unfullered blades, though it can be hard to tell with more corroded examples; single fullers tended to be broad and shallow, but blades with multiple parallel fullers are also known. The hilt did not provide a substantial counterbalance, so replicas of these swords tend to be blade-heavy in the hand and invite the user to strike boldly: the warrior would defend and bind with the shield while attacking with the sword. The hilt is shaped like a capital letter I, with a handle made of organic material such as bone or horn, and both guard and pommel are often made from plates of horn and/or metal sandwiched and riveted together on either side. As alluded to before, the guard doesn't defend much and the pommel is not much of a counterbalance, so these parts mainly serve the ergonomic function of keeping the hand from slipping onto the blade, or the sword from slipping out of one's grasp. The tang is peened over the pommel plate, and the peen is covered by a separate hollow pommel cap. The rarity of swords made them an important grave good for high-status individuals. Sword fittings from Sutton Hoo and the Staffordshire Horde are BlingOfWar taken to extremes, covered in elaborate goldwork and garnet cloisonné. It is doubtful whether Myth/KingArthur was ever a real historical figure, but if he were, then this is what {{Excalibur}} may have looked like.

* The Medieval knightly weapon most commonly mislabeled a "broadsword" in popular media, this was a straight, double-edged, single-handed sword about three feet long overall. Before the 14th century, blades were of lenticular cross section and fullered (Oakeshott types X-XIV), but in the 14th and 15th centuries types with a flattened diamond or hexagonal cross section (types XV-XX) became more popular. This change concided with the transition from mail armor being the highest level of protection to the increasing use of plate armor, which encouraged stiffer and more acutely tapered blades for thrusting between the plates. The medieval sword had a "cruciform" or cross-shaped appearance, thanks to having a substantially wider crossguard than Viking Era swords. The crossguard could either be straight, or with the tips curved gently towards the blade. The main hypothesis for this change is that kite- and triangular-shaped shields with arm straps began to replace the large, circular, center-grip shields of the Viking Era. At the same time, small, portable, center-gripped bucklers were becoming popular. These types of shields didn't lend themselves to the kind of binding play that the viking shield had been used for, nor did they cover the sword hand as completely, so the incidence of blade-on-blade contact increased significantly. A wider crossguard for protecting the hand and controlling the opposing blade was quite useful. The pommel, made of iron or sometimes bronze, could be made in a variety of shapes and was often an important ergonomic component of the sword grip. The arming sword is a versatile weapon, able to cut and thrust, and the cruciform hilt construction is a lot better for parrying off blows than shorter blades or curved blades. The second edge allows the weapon to cut in either direction; blows with the "short edge" (the edge which faces the wielder) are a major component of many Western martial arts. This is the blade design most commonly seen in use by feudal and Medieval knights, and was designed for use either on horseback or on foot. It was generally a one-handed weapon, often used together with a shield or a buckler.

This is a UsefulNotes page to give some background info on that marvelous weapon of yesteryear, the sword. For information about ''using'' them, see our UsefulNotes/EuropeanSwordsmanship and {{UsefulNotes/Kenjutsu}} pages.

* The sword was not only used in combat, but sometimes also in judicial executions. Nobles sentenced to death felt that even on an executioner's scaffold they deserved service befitting their class: besides being a more prestigious weapon which required more skill to use well, a sharp sword used by a specialist headsman was more likely to behead the condemned in one clean cut than the axe, which often required multiple blows to sever the neck. This could be done with a regular sword, as was often the case in TheLateMiddleAges and in military atrocities, but by the Renaissance there was reason to developed a more specialized implement. The difference between an executioner's working environment and a battlefield is obvious: no stabbing was involved, reach was not an issue, and there was much greater emphasis on carefully aiming your blows. An executioner's sword would often have a blade as short as an arming sword, but still with a two-handed grip, and forward-balanced. The blade was broad and thin for ease of cutting, with a rounded, non-fuctioning point. These changes ensured that an executioner had a proper tool to lop the head, or occasionally limbs, off of a static target in one blow. Unlike beheading with the ax, for which the condemned placed their neck on a chopping block and recieved a vertical blow, the custom for beheading by the sword was to have the condemned kneel--straight-backed and blindfolded--facing away from the executioner, who would decapitate them with a single horizontal blow.

* These slender cut-and-thrust weapons evolved from the 16th-century sideswords. They were characterized by their extremely long and stiff blades (often over 40 inches/100cm long) and their elaborate hilts. Early rapiers could be nearly indistinguishable from sideswords (many collectors categorize some swords simply as "rapier or sidesword"), but later rapiers tended to become more thrust-oriented: the blade would be very long, of narrow profile along its whole length, and of thick diamond or hexagonal cross section, with little to no distal taper towards the point. In the late 16th and early 17th centuries many distinct styles of hilt emerged; the Italian swept hilt (curved bars and rings in elegant loops), the German Pappenheimer (a pair of oval pierced plates on each side of the blade) and the Spanish cup hilt (a large half-dome covering the hilt) are among the more distinctive. Despite being primarily a civilian weapon, the rapier was commonly seen in a military context, usually carried by officers and aristocratic cavalry. The use of the rapier declined in most of Europe by the end of the 17th century, but in Spain the cup hilt variety remained popular even up to the late 18th century.

* The word "messer" refers to a family of slightly curved, single-edged blades, with a pointy tip fit for thrusts, in different incarnations one- or two-handed. The German names include several varieties of ''Messer'', meaning simply "knife," including the ''Grosses Messer'' ("great knife"), ''Langes Messer'' ("long knife") and ''Kriegsmesser'' ("war knife"). The difference between them is somewhat arbitrary, though one may opt to differentiate between one- and two-handed versions. As evidenced by its name, the messer was a humble weapon in origin, less "knightly" than a sword, but simpler to make — which is perhaps best evidenced in that it originally had a guard consisting of a nail sticking out of the handle. In terms of size and utility, as well as the ease of wearing it at one's side, it was an alternative to the arming sword. Because of this, their comparatively low cost, and laws against the wearing of swords by commoners [[note]]''it's just a knife, eh guys? Eh?''[[/note]] many fencing manuals teach the use of it, on its own or with a buckler.

* A very distinctive sword used in the ''kalaripayat'' style, sometimes known as a "whip sword" or "coiled sword." The blade is made out of a flexible band of metal, allowing the user to curve the blade around an opponent's guard. The unpredictability of the flexible blade is dangerous both to the target and to the user. Some versions sport multiple flexible blades to increase the offensive potential. Due to the flexibility of the blade, the sword is sometimes worn coiled as a belt or a sash by users.

* Despite what ''Film/ThreeHundred'' would make you believe, the primary weapon of a Greek hoplite was the spear. However, this does not mean the Greeks didn't have any swords to speak of. The sword seen in that comic is very loosely based on the real-life ''makhaira'' (roughly "battle thing," also transliterated ''machaira'' or, via Latin, ''machaera''), a curved, single-edged weapon not unlike an oversized Gurkha kukri. The ''kopis'' ("cutter") was somewhat like a long makhaira. Some historians speculate that the Greeks first learned of this blade shape from their trade with the Carthaginians and Iberian Celts, who used a sword with a similarly recurved blade, known in modern literature as a ''falcata'' (a Latin neologism meaning "sickle-shaped"). Others believe that the makhaira and kopis evolved in Greece and the Balkans from smaller knives during the Iron Age. UsefulNotes/{{Alexander|TheGreat}}'s armies went as far east as India, and it is considered plausible by many authorities that their introduction of this blade shape to India survives today as the Nepalese [[KukrisAreKool kukri]] that the Gurkhas still use.

* The ''gladius'', derived from Iberian designs ultimately from the Continental Celts (the word is probably from a Celtic root, related to Gaelic ''claidheamh''), was typically manufactured of wrought iron rather than steel. Several types of gladius are known, all having a distinctive hilt made mostly of wood and/or bone with a small oval guard, straight grip and large pommel. The ''gladius hispaniensis'' alluded to in Roman literature is identified with early blades that were around 24-27 inches long (61-69cm) not counting the tang. Later versions are named by archaeologists for their find sites and are shorter; the "Mainz type" was leaf-shaped, 20-22 inches (51-56cm), the "Fulham" was the same length but more angular, and the "Pompeii" could run as little as 18 inches (46cm) with straight edges and a short point. The short length shows how Roman tactics focused on short stabbing blows rather than the sweeping cuts with longer swords preferred by many of their enemies. This worked because of [[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_infantry_tactics Roman discipline and teamwork in battle]]; individually, less so. The gladius was used in conjunction with a very large rectangular or, in the late days of the Eastern Roman Empire, oval shield.

* The ''spatha'' (from a Greek word for "blade"), used by Roman cavalry, resembled a gladius with a much longer, straight-edged or tapering blade. It may also be derived from long Celtic swords given a more Roman-style hilt. It gradually replaced the gladius as the infantry sword, starting from the 2nd century AD. The spatha eventually evolved into the Viking weapons described below, and is thus the grandfather of European arming swords.

* Not a longsword, but a longer sword than most other peoples in Europe at the time used, the La Tene sword ranged from two and a half to three feet or longer, and had a bulky, organic hilt usually made of wood with very little metal, in a form that tended to vaguely resemble that of the anthro sword. The Celt-Iberians combined this type of sword with a scabbard that had rings on both sides for hanging from the belt, providing the model for the Roman gladius. Later, longer versions are thought to have influenced the development of the spatha and Migration Era sword. Meanwhile, the Irish used swords that were basically of the La Tene type but usually shorter, often no more than two feet overall.

* As a general rule, DualWielding was very rare in European combat. The rapier is one of the exceptions, as it was common to use a dagger (main gauche) or other weapon in the off-hand for parrying. True DualWielding of equal-sized swords was still uncommon, but sometimes done with sideswords and rapiers, taught by some fencing masters such as Marozzo.

* The Medieval knightly weapon most commonly mislabeled a "broadsword" in popular media, this was a straight, double-edged, single-handed sword about three feet long overall. Before the 14th century, blades were of lenticular cross section and fullered (Oakeshott types X-XIV), but in the 14th and 15th centuries types with a flattened diamond or hexagonal cross section (types XV-XX) became more popular. This change concided with the transition from mail armor being the highest level of protection to the incresing use of plate armor, which encouraged stiffer and more acutely tapered blades for thrusting between the plates. The medieval sword had a "cruciform" or cross-shaped appearance, thanks to having a substantially wider crossguard than Viking Era swords. The crossguard could either be straight, or with the tips curved gently towards the blade. The main hypothesis for this change is that kite- and triangular-shaped shields with arm straps began to replace the large, circular, center-grip shields of the Viking Era. At the same time, small, portable, center-gripped bucklers were becoming popular. These types of shields didn't lend themselves to the kind of binding play that the viking shield had been used for, nor did they cover the sword hand as completely, so the incidence of blade-on-blade contact increased significantly. A wider crossguard for protecting the hand and controlling the opposing blade was quite useful. The pommel, made of iron or sometimes bronze, could be made in a variety of shapes and was often an important ergonomic component of the sword grip. The arming sword is a versatile weapon, able to cut and thrust, and the cruciform hilt construction is a lot better for parrying off blows than shorter blades or curved blades. The second edge allows the weapon to cut in either direction; blows with the "short edge" (the edge which faces the wielder) are a major component of many Western martial arts. This is the blade design most commonly seen in use by feudal and Medieval knights, and was designed for use either on horseback or on foot. It was generally a one-handed weapon, often used together with a shield or a buckler.

* Most sword historians nowadays use "broadsword" in a fairly specific way, referring to a sword produced after the Middle Ages with a wide blade like an arming sword but usually a more complex hilt. Backswords, used in the same period, were very similar in profile but had single-edged blades with a triangular ("backed") cross section; this gave the advantage that a backsword could be made with a more acute cutting edge for the same thickness. Note that not all museum catalogues and reference books regard backswords as a distinct category; they are often klept as broadswords which happen to be single-edged. Hilts ranged from relatively simple shells and side rings to the "crab claw" hilt with four downcurved quillons and a wide knuckle guard, to baskets that completely enclosed the hand, like the Slavo-Italian ''schiavona'', and the "half-basket" or "mortuary" hilt of the 17th century which was very common during the UsefulNotes/EnglishCivilWar. Broadswords and backswords were initially used in combination with shields and bucklers, but later on just by themselves.

Pure iron is softer than the best tool bronze; adding carbon makes it harder, but heating it to the melting point in a charcoal furnace causes it to absorb too much carbon from the air, becoming the super-hard pig iron, which is too brittle for swords. For the same reason, cast iron objects like [[FryingPanOfDoom skillets]] are very thick and heavy for strength. Instead, iron is usually carburized by various processes (or decarburized, in the case of pig iron), then heated to glowing hot and soft but not molten, and hammered to shape (hot-forging). Modern sword blades are frequently ''machined'', ground by machine out of steel bars. The results can be perfectly functional, but connoisseurs rarely regard them as having the same artistic merit as blades forged by hand.

* From about the late 8th century to the mid-11th century, Scandinavian Vikings raided, traded, and explored all over Eurasia, and modern people often refer to this time as UsefulNotes/TheVikingAge. The kinds of swords discussed below were actually used by cultures throughout Western Europe, including the kingdoms of the Franks and the Anglo-Saxons, but for the sake of convenience the term "Viking sword" is understood to refer to all swords of this style. All Viking-era swords were single-handed. The typical example was straight and double-edged, the blade being of lenticular cross section with a broad fuller down most of its length. However, there is an interesting subtype which is straight and single-edged, with a fuller and a hatchet point. Viking Era swords were very good at cutting, and their broad points could thrust effectively into an unarmored person. Since most fighters in early medieval battles and raids didn't even own a mail shirt--relying on their shields for protection--and since most warriors who owned a sword would also have a spear, armor penetration was not a high priority for swords. The crossguards of viking swords before the 10th century tend to be rather thick and stubby, without projecting quillons. One hypothesis is that the kind of shield common at the time, which was large, circular, and gripped in the center, took the lead in binding against and controlling the opponent's shield and sword, while the sword was dedicated to offense. There would have been little direct blade-on-blade contact, so a long crossguard to protect the hand may have been seen as unnecessary. By the 10th century a more medieval form of hilt was appearing alongside the others, and swords with long crossguard quillons were called ''gaddhjalt'', meaning "spike-hilt." Pommels came in many types, including ones made from two pieces: a bar-like pommel plate peened to the tang, and a seperate, multi-lobed part that was fastened to the pommel plate by two rivets. Particularly towards the end of the Viking era, there were also simpler one-piece "brazil-nut" and "tea cozy" shapes. The hilt of a rich sword would be inlaid with gold, silver, or copper, incorporating motifs such as stripes, knotwork, or the NonNaziSwastika.

* These slender cut-and-thrust weapons evolved from the 16th-century sideswords. They were characterized by their extremely long and stiff blades (often over 40 inches/100cm long) and their elaborate hilts. Early rapiers could be nearly indistinguishable from sideswords (many collectors categorize some swords simply as "rapier or sidesword"), but later rapiers tended to become more thrust-oriented. In the late 16th and early 17th centuries many distinct styles of hilt emerged; the Italian swept hilt (curved bars and rings in elegant loops), the German Pappenheimer (a pair of oval pierced plates on each side of the blade) and the Spanish cup hilt (a large half-dome covering the hilt) are among the more distinctive. Despite being primarily a civilian weapon, the rapier was commonly seen in a military context, usually carried by officers and aristocratic cavalry. The use of the rapier declined in most of Europe by the end of the 17th century, but in Spain the cup hilt variety remained popular even up to the late 18th century.
* A common misconception is to link the rapier with the modern sport fencing foil or epee. In reality this sword was a very different beast. While it was a very dexterous weapon which relied heavily on precision and balance, most rapiers were still longer and sometimes heavier than the average longsword. The idea of the rapier is to have an extremely long sidearm that offered good hand protection, and for that a lot of material was needed, which added to its weight. Most of that weight is on the elaborate hand guards, which positions the point of balance very close to the hand. However, the blades weren't as light and quick as later fencing swords, and sometimes had modest cutting ability.

* It was developed at the end of the 17th century, based both on the rapier and on some models of compact infantry swords. Its hilt was relatively simple in form, often just a knuckle bow and a pair of plates or rings and often made entirely of soft brass, but in some cases decorated to the extreme. The blades were usually just over 30 inches (76cm) long, edgeless and very stiff. By the 18th century it was the most common sword carried by European gentlemen, as much of a fashion accessory as it was a weapon. Since it was the easiest sword to carry around it was frequently used as a self-defense weapon, and many fencing systems were centered around that. It was also considered the standard dueling weapon of the era, though with time it would be replaced by the pistol in that regard.

* The ''[[http://oriental-arms.co.il/item.php?id=569 shotel]]'' is the traditional Ethiopian weapon. In shape, it is similar to some kind of a cross between a scimitar and a sickle. Unlike these weapons, the shotel is double-edged — instead of fancy fencing, the [[IncrediblyLamePun point]] of this weapon was to use its peculiar shape to bypass the enemy's shield.

* The ''[[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kris kris]]'', usually the size of a dagger but sometimes the size of a sword, has a double-edged blade which flares asymmetrically at the base to form a sort of guard. It is native to Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, Brunei, Singapore and the Philippines, where it is called the kalis. Kris made in the modern era usually have wavy-profiled blades (see "flamberge"), always with an odd number of curves, but straight blades were more common in earlier times. Kris blades have damascus-like patterns in the steel which come from forging them out of iron ore with some nickel content; the number of patterns to be appreciated is similar to Middle Eastern and Japanese Blades. The grip is curved like that of a pistol to make thrusting more convenient, and can be a minaiture work of art sculpted out of rare wood, precious metals, or ivory. The sheath has a long tube for the blade and a widened top to enclose the guard of the sword, a little bit like the scabbard of the Greek Xiphos. It has a huge amount of talismanic, religious, and cultural significance, and is featured on the flags of many provinces, states, and political parties.

* Used by the Maguindanao and Maranao people of the Philippine island of Mindanao, the [[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kampilan Kampilan]] is a large sword by Philippine standards, with a straight, single-edged pattern welded blade about 36 to 40 inches (90 to 100 cm) long. The blade is thick and narrow at the base but becomes progressively thinner and wider towards the tip, with a "broken backed" point like a seax, the back of which sometimes has a small spike or spur on it. It is basically a cutting weapon, and whether the small spike symbolizes something or has any functional purpose is a matter ShroudedInMyth. The hilt is made of hardwood, with a thick crossguard and a bifurcated pommel shaped like a creature's open mouth. Scabbards were usually two pieces of unardorned wood bound together with rattan fibers, and were treated as fairly disposable.

* The Barong is a short sword used by Moro groups in the Southern Philippines such as the Tausug, Yakan, and Sinama. The patterned blade is leaf-shaped and single-edged, only 8 to 22 inches (20 to 56 cm) long but thick enough to give it some heft for cutting. The handle of wood, ebony, or carabao horn widens towards the pommel, which is curved toward the edge of the blade. Scabbards are made of two boards wrapped in rattan.

* These came in different variations, like the Scots claymore (''claidheamh mór'', "great sword") or the German ''Bidenhänder''/''Zweihänder'' ("two-hander"), and were very rare indeed. Their length and weight varied (from 145cm to 2m in length, and from 1.5-5kg), but the average zweihander was roughly 170cm in length and weighed around 3kg. Their primary purpose, aside from ceremonial designs, was for use by shock infantry to support a formation against enemy pike blocks, in the same way as halberds and similar polearms were used. They were also used by banner guards and personal guards because of how even one man with a two-handed sword could fight off multiple opponents [[RadialAsskicking even while surrounded]], constantly pivoting to face different foes and using great windmill cuts to threaten anyone who came within the sword's fearsome reach from any direction. The large mass and inertia of two-handed swords meant that they took longer to get up to speed as well as longer to slow down, and didn't turn on a dime; the trick was to use the momentum of the sword instead of fighting it, making large circles and chaining together multiple cuts, and thrusts, and parries without any hard stops. They were expensive and difficult to master, requiring stamina, coordination throughout the entire body, situational awareness, and a good sense of the weapon's tempo and measure: soldiers who mastered their use were counted among the elite. Originals that survive tend to have been ceremonial or judicial weapons[[note]]For example, [[https://www.schlossmoosham.at Moosham Castle]] has a symbolic judicial sword. It was not used as an actual weapon - the judge could communicate a verdict by laying it on the table in front of him, with one of the two different sides of the blade facing upward. It has been said that the the blade side with the death verdict was the more merciful one.[[/note]]; many are parade "bearing swords" that are too large to fight with. However, while they sound very heavy and unwieldy, two-handers made for combat are surprisingly agile weapons due to the length of the hilt. Surviving Scots claymores have hilts typically about 50-60cm long; this length gives the user significant leverage to swing the heavy blade, with one hand putting in pressure and the other acting as a fulcrum. Many styles of two-handed blade (particularly the zweihander) also had a "third grip" known as a ''ricasso'', a blunted portion of the blade below the crossguard that was used to provide more precise control of the weapon while striking. Some even had the ricasso wrapped in leather to make it easier to grip, and/or parrying hooks sprouting between the ricasso and sharp part of the blade as a secondary crossguard. Wielding the blade in such a manner made it almost like a polearm — hence why learning how to use one properly could be highly confusing for a seasoned soldier.

* These came in different variations, like the Scots claymore (''claidheamh mór'', "great sword") or the German ''Bidenhänder''/''Zweihänder'' ("two-hander"), and were very rare indeed. Their length and weight varied (from 145cm to 2m in length, and from 1.5-5kg), but the average zweihander was roughly 170cm in length and weighed around 3kg. Their primary purpose, aside from ceremonial designs, was for use by shock infantry to support a formation against enemy pike blocks, in the same way as halberds and similar polearms were used. Due to their effectiveness they were often used by banner guards and personal guards. They were expensive and difficult to master, and soldiers that mastered their use were counted among the elite. Originals that survive tend to have been ceremonial or judicial weapons[[note]]For example, [[https://www.schlossmoosham.at Moosham Castle]] has a symbolic judicial sword. It was not used as an actual weapon - the judge could communicate a verdict by laying it on the table in front of him, with one of the two different sides of the blade facing upward. It has been said that the the blade side with the death verdict was the more merciful one.[[/note]]; many are parade "bearing swords" that are too large to fight with. However, while they sound very heavy and unwieldy, two-handers made for combat are surprisingly agile weapons due to the length of the hilt. Surviving Scots claymores have hilts typically about 50-60cm long; this length gives the user significant leverage to swing the heavy blade, with one hand putting in pressure and the other acting as a fulcrum. Many styles of two-handed blade (particularly the zweihander) also had a "third grip" known as a ''ricasso'', a blunted portion of the blade below the crossguard that was used to provide more precise control of the weapon while striking. Some even had the ricasso wrapped in leather to make it easier to grip, and/or parrying hooks sprouting between the ricasso and sharp part of the blade as a secondary crossguard. Wielding the blade in such a manner made it almost like a polearm — hence why learning how to use one properly could be highly confusing for a seasoned soldier.

Twisting a billet made of various kinds of steel and iron produced a rippled pattern, which on the finished blade may be revealed through polishing and etching; such a blade is called ''pattern-welded.'' In Europe, better-quality sword blades were frequently pattern-welded prior to the High Middle Ages. The surface pattern looks similar to Damascus steel and modern sellers often bill it as "genuine Damascus," though sword buffs often prefer to call it "false Damascus," as it's made by an entirely different process (see "Middle-Eastern Swords")

* Aka ''acinaces'', this is the Greek and Latin form of the name for a short sword/dagger from Central Asia that was spread to the Middle East by the Medes and Persians in the Classical period. It had a tapering, double-edged blade with a small guard and wide pommel, and its scabbard had a large tab at the top by which it was hung from the wearer's belt, usually at the right hip. This is the kind of sword that [[Film/ThreeHundred the Immortals]] would've used in real life. Because of its association with Persia, the word ''acinaces'' has sometimes been used as a Latin translation for "scimitar," thence curved swords in general; Jesuit priests even used it to refer to the katana.

* The dadāo, also known as the "Chinese greatsword," is a two-handed sword based on agricultural knives, with a broad blade between two and three feet long and a long hilt meant for both one-handed and two-handed use. Its name literally means "[[ExactlyWhatItSaysOnTheTin big knife]]." During the UsefulNotes/SecondSinoJapaneseWar of 1933, due to the under-equipped nature of many smaller factions within China, some Chinese soldiers were armed with just a dadāo and a handgun. They were used to great effect against the Japanese in close combat (or at least, as much as they could in conjunction with guerrilla tactics before they get seriously outgunned), and these units became somewhat legendary, with [[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Sword_March a patriotic song]] being based on killing Japanese invaders with dadāo.

Note that many sources miscategorize European cruciform swords under the name "broadswords." This is an anachronism and will hit the FandomBerserkButton if you use it amongst true enthusiasts. The term "broadsword" is actually a given name referring to a specific ''type'' of sword, just like "machete" or "falchion" is; the sword in particular is a broad, straight-bladed sword from ''after'' the Middle Ages. Various types were used throughout Europe, the best-known today being the Scottish basket-hilted broadsword. It was called a "broadsword" to differentiate it from the slim-bladed, stabbing-oriented rapier, and historians borrowed it as a catch-all term for ''all'' "broad"-bladed cutting swords, which (at the time) did not have a name as a category.

* Swords dated to the 4th to 7th centuries CE, referred to as Migration Era swords, originated when Germanic tribes appropriated the Roman ''spatha'', discussed below. During the decline and collapse of the Western Roman Empire, the Germanic tribes began to produce their own versions of the spatha, which transitioned into the Viking Age swords discussed immediately below. The sword quickly became a marker of social standing in Germanic society, generally being a rare and expensive weapon for the elite while commoners made do with the spear, axe, and knife. Blades were pattern welded by forging and folding rods into alternating layers of steel, and then twisting them to create beautiful designs that were revealed when the blade was polished and etched in acid. The shape of the blade was suited for cutting, with parallel edges and spatulate points. Fullers tended to be broad and shallow, while some examples featuring multiple parallel fullers are known. The hilt did not provide a substantial counterbalance, so replicas of these swords tend to be blade-heavy in the hand and invite the user to strike boldly: the warrior would defend and bind with the shield while attacking with the sword. The hilt is shaped like a capital letter I, with a handle made of organic material such as bone or horn, and both guard and pommel are often made from plates of horn and/or metal sandwiched together and riveted. As alluded to before, the guard doesn't defend much and the pommel is not much of a counterbalance, so these parts mainly serve the ergonomic function of keeping the hand from slipping onto the blade, or the sword from slipping out of one's grasp. The tang is peened over the pommel plate, and the peen is covered by a separate hollow pommel cap. The rarity of swords made them an important grave good for high-status individuals. Sword fittings from Sutton Hoo and the Staffordshire Horde are BlingOfWar taken to extremes, covered in elaborate goldwork and garnet cloisonné. It is doubtful whether Myth/KingArthur was ever a real man, but if he were, then {{Excalibur}} might have looked like this.

* Swords dated to the 4th to 7th centuries CE, referred to as Migration Era swords, originated when Germanic tribes appropriated the Roman ''spatha'', discussed below. During the decline and collapse of the Western Roman Empire, the Germanic tribes began to produce their own versions of the spatha, which transitioned into the Viking Age swords discussed immediately below. The sword quickly became a marker of social standing in Germanic society, generally being a rare and expensive weapon for the elite while commoners made do with the spear, axe, and knife. Blades were pattern welded by forging and folding rods into alternating layers of steel, and then twisting them to create beautiful designs that were revealed when the blade was polished and etched in acid. The shape of the blade was suited for cutting, with parallel edges and spatulate points. Fullers seem to have been unknown at this time, and the hilt did not provide a substantial counterbalance, so replicas of these swords tend to be blade-heavy in the hand and invite the user to strike boldly: the warrior would defend and bind with the shield while attacking with the sword. The hilt is shaped like a capital letter I, with a handle made of organic material such as bone or horn, and both guard and pommel are often made from plates of horn and/or metal sandwiched together and riveted. As alluded to before, the guard doesn't defend much and the pommel is not much of a counterbalance, so these parts mainly serve the ergonomic function of keeping the hand from slipping onto the blade, or the sword from slipping out of one's grasp. The tang is peened over the pommel plate, and the peen is covered by a seperate hollow pommel cap. The rarity of swords made them an important grave good for high-status individuals. Sword fittings from Sutton Hoo and the Staffordshire Horde are BlingOfWar taken to extremes, covered in elaborate goldwork and garnet cloisonné. It is doubtful whether Myth/KingArthur was ever a real man, but if he were, then {{Excalibur}} might have looked like this.

* Swords dated to the 4th to 7th centuries CE, referred to as Migration Era swords, originated when Germanic tribes appropriated the Roman ''spatha'', discussed below. During the decline and collapse of the Western Roman Empire, the Germanic tribes began to produce their own versions of the spatha, which transitioned into the Viking Age swords discussed immediately below. The sword quickly became a marker of social standing in Germanic society, generally being a rare and expensive weapon for the elite while commoners made do with the spear, axe, and knife. Blades were pattern welded by forging and folding rods into alternating layers of steel, and then twisting them to create beautiful designs that were revealed when the blade was polished and etched in acid. The shape of the blade was suited for cutting, with parallel edges and spatulate points. Fullers seem to have been unknown at this time, and the hilt did not provide a substantial counterbalance, so replicas of these swords tend to be blade-heavy in the hand and invite the user to strike boldly: the warrior would defend and bind with the shield while attacking with the sword. The hilt is shaped like a capital letter I, with a handle made of organic material such as bone or horn, and both guard and pommel are often made from plates of horn and/or metal sandwiched together and riveted. As alluded to before, the guard doesn't defend much and the pommel is not much of a counterbalance, so these parts mainly serve the ergonomic function of keeping the hand from slipping onto the blade, or the sword from slipping out of one's grasp. The tang is peened over the pommel plate, and the peen is covered by a seperate hollow pommel cap. The rarity of swords made them an important grave good for high-status individuals. Sword fittings from Sutton Hoo and the Staffordshire Horde are BlingOfWar taken to extremes, covered in elaborate goldwork and garnet cloisonné. It is doubtful whether Myth/KingArthur was ever a real man, but if he were, then {{Excalibur}} would have probably looked something like this.

* Swords dated to the 4th to 7th centuries CE, referred to as Migration Era swords, originated when Germanic tribes appropriated the Roman ''spatha'', discussed below. During the decline and collapse of the Western Roman Empire, the Germanic tribes began to produce their own versions of the spatha, which transitioned into the Viking Age swords discussed immediately below. The sword quickly became a marker of social standing in Germanic society, and was commonly used as a grave good.

* These came in different variations, like the Scots claymore (''claidheamh mór'', "great sword") or the German ''Bidenhänder''/''Zweihänder'' ("two-hander"), and were very rare indeed. Their length and weight varied (from 145cm to 2m in length, and from 1.5-5kg), but the average zweihander was roughly 170cm in length and weighed around 3kg. Their primary purpose, aside from ceremonial designs, was for use by shock infantry to support a formation against enemy pike blocks, in the same way as halberds and similar polearms were used. Due to their effectiveness they were often used by banner guards and personal guards. They were expensive and difficult to master, and soldiers that mastered their use were counted among the elite. Originals that survive tend to have been ceremonial or judicial weapons; many are parade "bearing swords" that are too large to fight with. However, while they sound very heavy and unwieldy, two-handers made for combat are surprisingly agile weapons due to the length of the hilt. Surviving Scots claymores have hilts typically about 50-60cm long; this length gives the user significant leverage to swing the heavy blade, with one hand putting in pressure and the other acting as a fulcrum. Many styles of two-handed blade (particularly the zweihander) also had a "third grip" known as a ''ricasso'', a blunted portion of the blade below the crossguard that was used to provide more precise control of the weapon while striking. Some even had the ricasso wrapped in leather to make it easier to grip, and/or parrying hooks sprouting between the ricasso and sharp part of the blade as a secondary crossguard. Wielding the blade in such a manner made it almost like a polearm — hence why learning how to use one properly could be highly confusing for a seasoned soldier.

* These swords were developed from the rapier, but not in the sense most people think. The change from a long and heavy sword to a light and shorter variant was not done because the smallsword was a superior weapon, but simply because it was more convenient. Rapiers often weight well over 1kg. Smallswords, on the other hand, are usually between 350 and 500g. The reduced size also meant a person could wear one while going about their daily tasks or even in a social context without worrying about it getting in the way. In modern terms, it's analogous to the difference between carrying a large steel pistol and a compact polymer model. The smaller and lighter weapon is simply going to be easier to live with, even if the alternative would probably serve you better in a fight.